远端肱二头肌撕裂

This is the clinical evidence summary written for health professionals. It is technical, and it lists the research this page was built from. You do not need to read it to understand your treatment or to make a decision about it.

Overview¶

• Distal biceps tendon injuries typically occur in middle-aged, higher-demand patients who often require surgical reconstruction to optimize outcome and performance [24].
• Surgical repair of distal biceps tendon ruptures has an overall low rate of serious complications regardless of approach or technique [8, 9, 11, 12].
• Distal biceps repair is associated with a 7.5% major complication rate and a 4.5% reoperation rate [7].
• A systematic review indicates a major complication rate of 4.6% after distal biceps repair [31].
• Patients should be counseled that 1 in 5 patients will have a minor complication and 1 in 20 patients will have a major complication after surgery on the distal biceps tendon [14].
• The overall frequency of reported complications is higher for single-incision distal biceps repair than for double-incision repair [1].
• Nerve injury is the most common complication following distal biceps tendon repair [38].
• The early complication rate following partial distal biceps tendon repair was 20.5% [23].
• Surgical treatment of chronic distal biceps injuries yields favorable objective and subjective outcomes [3].
• Although there may be a slightly higher immediate complication rate for chronic distal biceps ruptures, functional outcomes remain comparable with those seen in the patient population with acute distal biceps [6].
• Patients who underwent distal biceps reconstruction with a graft had similar failure rates, reoperation rates, and final range of motion compared to primary repair [18].
• Even in the setting of a distal biceps reconstruction with graft augmentation, patients can expect low complications and good functional results [10].
• Surgical repair of the distal biceps insertion reliably regains both supination and flexion strength in appropriate patients [55].
• Athletes sustaining distal biceps tendon rupture have a high postoperative return to sport rate, independently of selected surgical technique or rehabilitation program [50].
• Surgical management of distal biceps tears was a predictor of improved patient-reported outcomes only for patients with complete tears [16].

Anatomy & Pathophysiology¶

Anatomy¶

• The biceps brachii is the primary supinator and a secondary flexor of the elbow [52].
• The short head of the biceps muscle arises from the coracoid process of the scapula [52].
• The long head of the biceps originates from the supraglenoid tubercle of the scapula and the glenoid labrum [52].
• The long head merges with the short head to form the distal biceps tendon and its medial extension, the lacertus fibrosus [52].
• The distal biceps tendon rotates 90 degrees such that the medial side of the tendon attaches to the distal portion of the radial tuberosity [52].
• The distal biceps tendon is a paratenon-covered extrasynovial tendon with three zones of blood supply [120].
• Zone 1 of the distal biceps tendon blood supply receives vessels from the brachial artery via branches extending past the musculotendinous junction to supply the bulk of the tendon [120].
• Zone 3 of the distal biceps tendon blood supply receives contributions from the posterior interosseous recurrent artery and is limited to the tendon enthesis on the radial tuberosity [120].
• Zone 2 of the distal biceps tendon is covered in a significantly thinner paratenon and receives vessels from both Zone 1 and Zone 3 sources through its extratendinous paratenon cover [120].
• The junction among the three zones of blood supply in the distal biceps tendon may be a transition area where tendon repair mechanisms are limited [120].
• The narrow passage between the lateral ulnar border and the radial tuberosity decreases by roughly 50% in pronation as compared with supination [120].
• The brachialis tendon is an intramuscular tendon at the level of the antecubital fossa and cannot be hooked away from an underlying muscle belly [37].
• The normal lacertus fibrosus often remains intact even with biceps rupture and must be discriminated from the biceps tendon during examination [34].

Pathophysiology¶

• Distal biceps injuries frequently occur in middle-aged males after an eccentric load to the elbow in flexion [17].
• Distal biceps tendon ruptures typically occur in the dominant arm of males during the fifth to sixth decade of life [37].
• The incidence of distal biceps tendon ruptures is 1.2 per 100,000 persons per year [37].
• Distal biceps tendon ruptures are associated with a traumatic event causing a sudden, eccentric load to a flexed and supinated forearm [37].
• Common risk factors for distal biceps tendon rupture include anabolic steroid use, body building, and smoking [37].
• Distal biceps tendon ruptures were most commonly observed in weightlifting with a slightly flexed or isometrically extended elbow and forearm supination [98].
• In a series of competitive strength athletes, the most common strength sport activities leading to distal biceps tendon rupture were deadlifting (20%) and biceps curls (13%) [119].
• Outside of sporting activities, the most common mechanisms of injury for distal biceps tendon rupture were lifting (34%) or carrying (11%) a heavy object and falling onto the outstretched arm (13%) [119].
• A hypovascular zone near the tendon insertion on the tuberosity can limit repair mechanisms in this area [52].
• A 50% narrowing of the space available for the tendon between the radius and ulna occurs in pronation as opposed to supination [52].
• Preexisting inflammatory or degenerative changes involving the distal biceps tendon predispose to rupture from the radial tuberosity [120].
• The junction among the three zones of blood supply in the distal biceps tendon is more prone to attritional injury and rupture [120].
• Rupture of the distal insertion of the biceps tendon necessarily completely eliminates the function of the muscle [52].
• Distal biceps tendon rupture has been found to result in a 30–50% decrease in supination endurance and strength [52].
• Distal biceps tendon rupture has been found to result in an approximate 20% decrease in flexion strength [52].
• Partial distal biceps tendon tears encompass a spectrum of disease from tendinopathic micro-tears to near-full-thickness rupture from the radial tuberosity [2].
• The mechanism of full-thickness distal biceps tendon tears is well reported with a defined episode of injury, deformity, pain, and weakness [2].
• Partial distal biceps tendon tears may have a variable presentation with either an insidious or acute traumatic history, pain, mechanical symptoms, and subtle examination findings [2].
• The condition of partial distal biceps tendon tears may remain undiagnosed or mismanaged, leading to a delay in treatment [2].
• The insertion site of the distal biceps tendon on the radial tuberosity undergoes degenerative changes that begin with partial tearing of the tendon [40].
• Degenerative changes at the distal biceps insertion can be painful but also clearly can be asymptomatic [40].
• Patients with distal biceps ruptures often show signs of significant chronic degeneration with partial tearing before the acute rupture [40].
• Many patients with distal biceps ruptures deny having any symptoms referable to their distal biceps insertion before the acute event that caused them to present for treatment [40].
• Partial biceps tendon tears may result from an acute event or tearing in conjunction with chronic degeneration [40].

Classification¶

• Partial distal biceps tendon tears encompass a spectrum of disease ranging from tendinopathic micro-tears to near-full-thickness rupture from the radial tuberosity [2].
• Full-thickness distal biceps tendon tear patients tend to present acutely [2].
• Recommended management algorithms for partial distal biceps tendon tears typically focus on patient factors and a tear percentage of 50% as a guide for conservative treatment versus repair [2].
• The '50%-rule' on a 2-dimensional MRI measurement is likely an over-simplified parameter for a complex three-dimensional structure with known anatomical variants [2].
• Isolated short head ruptures are a rare and distinct form of distal biceps tear that present with consistent clinical findings that can aid in diagnosis [19].
• The incidence of women sustaining a distal biceps tendon tear is 3.2% [20].
• Partial tears are statistically more common than complete ruptures in women sustaining a distal biceps tendon tear [20].
• Injury to the distal biceps typically occurs in middle aged, higher demand patients who often require surgical reconstruction to optimize outcome and performance [24].
• Distal biceps tendon ruptures occur at a rate of 1.2 ruptures per 100,000 persons per year [47].
• Distal biceps tendon ruptures account for approximately 3% of all biceps tendon injuries [47].
• Distal biceps tendon ruptures remain a predominately male injury, possibly due to the larger cross-sectional area of biceps in men [47].
• Distal biceps tendon injuries are most likely traumatic events arising when sudden extension load is applied to a flexed, supinated arm [47].
• The aetiology of biceps tendon ruptures is most likely multifactorial, involving a variety of mechanical, degenerative and hypovascular factors [47].
• Seiler et al. discovered three vascular zones in the tendon and reported an approximately 2 cm zone of hypovascularity between the proximal and distal zones [47].
• A more than 50% decrease in the cross sectional area available for the tendon from full supination to full pronation leads to an increased risk for rupture [47].
• Kannus and colleagues reported degenerative tendinopathy in ruptured tendons, based on histopathologic findings [47].
• Smokers have a 7.5 times higher risk of a total rupture compared with non smokers [47].
• Smoking along with anabolic steroids may be related to tendon degeneration and rupture [47].
• There was a 7-fold increase in the incidence of distal biceps tendon rupture surgery in Finnish men during 1997 to 2016 [25].
• There was a 28-fold increase in the incidence of distal biceps tendon rupture surgery in Swedish men during 1997 to 2016 [25].

Clinical Presentation¶

Epidemiology and Risk Factors¶

• Distal biceps tendon ruptures typically occur in the dominant arm of males during the fifth to sixth decade of life at a rate of 1.2 per 100,000 persons per year [37].
• The vast majority of complete distal biceps tendon ruptures occurs in men between 40 and 60 years of age [46].
• The dominant limb is involved in 52% of complete distal biceps tendon rupture cases [46].
• An 8% cumulative incidence of bilateral biceps tendon ruptures has been reported [46].
• The incidence of women sustaining a distal biceps tendon tear is 3.2%, with partial tears being statistically more common than complete ruptures in women [20].
• In women, distal biceps tendon ruptures are described as having a more gradual onset of symptoms and a higher incidence of partial tears [46].
• There was a 7-fold increase in the incidence of distal biceps tendon rupture surgery in Finnish men between 1997 and 2016 [25].
• There was a 28-fold increase in the incidence of distal biceps tendon rupture surgery in Swedish men between 1997 and 2016 [25].

History and Mechanism¶

• Patients with full-thickness distal biceps tendon tears tend to present acutely [2].
• Distal biceps tendon ruptures are associated with a traumatic event which causes a sudden, eccentric load to a flexed and supinated forearm [37].
• A patient typically relates a history of lifting an object or a forced extension of a flexed and loaded forearm [40].
• The patient may recall an audible pop over the anterior elbow [37].
• Patients with chronic and slowly degenerative partial tears often complain of nonspecific elbow pain that is worsened with daily activities [40].

Physical Examination Findings¶

• A patient with biceps pathologic conditions exhibits pain and weakness in flexion and supination [34].
• Ecchymoses in the antecubital fossa may be present in patients with biceps pathologic conditions [34].
• An abnormal muscle contour of the biceps may be observed in patients with biceps pathologic conditions [34].
• Inspection of the soft tissues tends to demonstrate swelling of the soft tissues in the antecubital fossa [37].
• Retraction of the muscle belly with a visible bulge, known as a reverse Popeye deformity, is a clinical finding supporting the diagnosis of distal biceps rupture [37].
• Weakness in flexion and supination is a clinical finding supporting the diagnosis of distal biceps rupture [37].
• Bruising is a clinical finding supporting the diagnosis of distal biceps rupture [37].
• If seen a few days after the injury episode, ecchymosis is commonly present over the elbow and proximal forearm [40].
• Patients often point out the asymmetry and the "Pop-eye" deformity in the biceps muscle belly [40].
• In partial tears, the biceps may still be palpable [40].
• Patients with chronic partial tears often point to the anterior middle aspect of the antecubital fossa but do not specifically point to the posterolateral aspect of the elbow or the area of the radial tuberosity [40].
• Pain elicited by deep palpation of the radial tuberosity from the posterolateral aspect while passively pronating the forearm is a good indication of tendinopathy involving the insertion of the distal biceps [40].
• Isolated short head ruptures present with consistent clinical findings that can aid in diagnosis [19].

Diagnostic Tests¶

• The hook test involves having the patient's elbow in 90° of flexion and full supination, then hooking a finger around the lateral edge of the distal biceps tendon as it spans the antecubital fossa [37].
• The hook test has proven 100% sensitivity and specificity for making a prompt diagnosis of distal biceps rupture [37].
• The hook test allows for the distinction between complete avulsion, which results in an abnormal hook test, and partial avulsion, which yields a painful hook test [37].
• O'Driscoll hook test sensitivity is not 100% but remains a useful clinical test to assess patients with suspected distal biceps tendon tears [81].
• A negative O'Driscoll hook test does not exclude rupture [81].
• The evidence-based diagnostic algorithm using the combination of the Flexion Initiation Test (FIT) and hook test demonstrates high accuracy for the diagnosis of both complete and high-grade partial distal biceps tendon tears [33].
• Missed injuries have been attributed to the examiner palpating an intact brachialis tendon, which is an intramuscular tendon at the level of the antecubital fossa and cannot be hooked away from an underlying muscle belly [37].
• Occasionally, some fibers or a fascial sleeve may remain intact, giving an appearance of an intact tendon [34].
• The examiner must discriminate between the normal lacertus fibrosus, which often remains intact even with biceps rupture, and the biceps tendon [34].

Imaging¶

• Plain film radiographs are most commonly normal and do not show pathologic changes in distal biceps ruptures [34].
• Biceps ruptures typically do not involve bony ruptures, and minimal changes are seen on standard radiographs of the elbow [34].
• MRI may show rupture but is unnecessary in most cases and occasionally may be read as falsely negative [34].
• Some authors suggest a 100% correlation between MRI findings and intraoperative findings for distal biceps ruptures [34].
• MRI did not affect the operative plan in the setting of rupture of a previously repaired ruptured distal biceps tendon [34].
• MRI is useful to exclude alternative diagnoses and to evaluate the extent of suspected partial rupture [34].
• MRI is useful in cases where the history suggests a biceps rupture but the clinical examination is unclear [34].
• MRI tells the surgeon the expected location of the distal tendon end and whether it has retracted proximally [34].
• MRI findings suggestive of complete rupture include absence of the tendon insertion or a fluid-filled sheath [34].
• Partial ruptures on MRI are typically seen as high signal intensity, fluid within the tendon sheath, or thinning or thickening of the tendon distally [34].
• The FABS view (shoulder abducted over the head, elbow in 90 degrees of flexion, forearm in supination) has been suggested to improve visualization of the distal biceps insertion into the radial tuberosity [34].
• Ultrasound is a lower-cost diagnostic tool that is usually unnecessary but has been shown to be accurate in the diagnosis of complete or partial tears [34].
• Ultrasound findings suggestive of complete rupture include tendon absence, fluid, and mass in the antecubital fossa [34].
• Incomplete rupture on ultrasound may be represented by a focal hypoechogenic area or thinning of the tendon [34].
• Advanced imaging with MRI or ultrasonography is helpful in cases of partial avulsions as it can assess the biceps insertion [37].
• The finding that distal biceps MRI signal changes consistent with tendinopathy are common even in asymptomatic elbows reduces the probability that symptoms correlate with pathology on imaging [42].
• The prevalence of distal biceps tendon signal changes on MRI in asymptomatic patients is very low [43].

Investigations¶

Clinical Examination¶

• The hook test has proven 100% sensitivity and specificity for making a prompt diagnosis of distal biceps tendon rupture [37].
• Missed injuries have been attributed to the examiner palpating an intact brachialis tendon, which is an intramuscular tendon at the level of the antecubital fossa and cannot be hooked away from an underlying muscle belly as in the case of an intact distal biceps tendon [37].
• On clinical examination, a patient with biceps pathologic conditions exhibits pain and weakness in flexion and supination and sometimes ecchymoses in the antecubital fossa or an abnormal muscle contour of the biceps [34].
• With the elbow at 90 degrees of flexion, the examiner may ask the patient to rotate the pronated forearm into supination; normally, the examiner can hook the tip of his or her thumb around the biceps tendon in the cubital fossa, but with distal avulsion of the tendon, this may be impossible [34].
• Deep palpation of the radial tuberosity from the posterolateral aspect while passively pronating the forearm sometimes elicits pain, which is a very good indication of tendinopathy involving the insertion of the distal biceps [40].

Imaging¶

• Plain film radiographs should be obtained but are most commonly normal and do not show pathologic changes, as biceps ruptures typically do not involve bony ruptures [34].
• MRI may show rupture, but it is unnecessary in most cases and occasionally may be read as falsely negative [34].
• Some authors suggest a 100% correlation between MRI findings and intraoperative findings for distal biceps rupture [34].
• If obtained, the surgeon should view the MRI images themselves, as the radiologic interpretation is just an interpretation [34].
• In the setting of rupture of a previously repaired ruptured distal biceps tendon, MRI did not affect the operative plan [34].
• MRI may be useful to exclude alternative diagnoses and to evaluate the extent of suspected partial rupture [34].
• MRI may be useful in cases in which the history suggests a biceps rupture but the clinical examination is unclear [34].
• Positioning the prone patient with the shoulder abducted over the head and the elbow in 90 degrees of flexion and the forearm in supination (the FABS view) has been suggested to improve visualization of the distal biceps insertion into the radial tuberosity [34].
• Obtaining an MRI view of the elbow during flexion, abduction, and supination allows for optimal evaluation of the tendon along its long axis and minimizes error by reducing volume averaging [37].

Treatment¶

Non-Operative Management¶

• Nonoperative management of complete distal biceps tendon ruptures does not restore function to the elbow [45].
• Conservative treatment is a viable option for very low-demand patients who have concerns about problems connected to surgery [86].
• For partial distal biceps tears, nonoperative treatment is recommended initially if less than 50% of the tendon is involved [86].
• Patients with partial distal biceps tears should be treated nonoperatively for the first 3 to 6 months [87].
• Patients with partial distal biceps tears are encouraged to avoid heavy lifting and use the arm primarily for activities of daily living only [87].
• Strengthening exercises and physical therapy are unnecessary for patients with partial biceps tendon ruptures [87].
• In a cohort study, 82% of participants with partial distal biceps tears had failed non-surgical treatment [86].
• In a study by Bauer et al., 55.7% of patients who tried a nonoperative course for partial distal biceps tears ultimately underwent surgery [36].
• High-need patients, as defined by occupation, were more likely to report ideal recovery if they underwent surgery compared to those who did not [36].
• An MRI-diagnosed tear of greater than 50% was a predictor of needing surgery for partial distal biceps tears [36].
• A meta-analysis showed the superiority of surgical management over the nonoperative approach for distal biceps tendon detachment, with superior flexion and supination strength and better patient-reported outcomes [73].
• In two case reports of nonoperative management for distal biceps tendon rupture, flexion and supination strength returned to normal limits when compared with the opposite upper extremity [22].

Operative Management¶

• Surgical reinsertion of the biceps tendon to the radial tuberosity is considered the treatment of choice for most complete ruptures [112].
• Although there may be a slightly higher immediate complication rate for chronic distal biceps repairs, functional outcomes remain comparable with those seen in the patient population with acute distal biceps [6].
• Patients undergoing distal biceps reconstruction with a graft had similar failure rates, reoperation rates, and final range of motion compared to primary repair [18].
• Patients can be consulted that direct repair in the acute setting is preferred; however, even in the setting of a distal biceps reconstruction with graft augmentation, they can expect low complications and good functional results [10].
• Distal biceps tendon repair surgery can be safely and successfully executed with either a single- or double-incision approach [48].
• Single anterior incision with suture anchor repair may be utilized for repair of ruptures of the distal biceps tendon with good clinical and functional outcomes and minimal loss of range of motion and strength [80].
• Bioabsorbable interference screw fixation of distal biceps ruptures through a single anterior incision is a safe and successful technique [15].
• Anatomic reattachment of the distal biceps tendon is a successful operative treatment option [29].
• In chronic biceps tendon rupture, anatomical reinsertion is the desired surgical approach due to a high unsatisfactory results rate of 40% in non-anatomical insertion [86].
• Morrey et al. suggest performing primary distal biceps tendon repairs in up to 90 degrees of flexion [86].
• Operative treatment for significant partial distal biceps tears that do not improve after 6 months of nonoperative treatment involves taking down the remaining fibers of the distal biceps and repair to the insertion site [87].
• Operative management for significant partial distal biceps tears has been found to be satisfactory with restoration of function and resolution of symptoms through a single posterior incision [87].
• Patients who present with a classic history of a “pop” in the arm with resisted motion and sudden onset of pain should be treated as having complete biceps tears regardless of MRI findings suggestive of “partial tear” [87].
• The average time to surgery for the operative group in a study of distal biceps tendon ruptures was 9 days, ranging from 3 days to 4 weeks [69].

Complications and Outcomes¶

• Complication rates after distal biceps repair are low [5].
• Distal biceps repair is associated with a 7.5% major complication rate and 4.5% reoperation rate [7].
• Workers' compensation patients who underwent distal biceps tendon repair took longer to return to work and had worse DASH scores than non-workers' compensation patients [56].

Complications¶

• The short-term clinical influence of biceps complications on shoulder outcome is very limited [4].
• Although there may be a slightly higher immediate complication rate, the functional outcomes remain comparable with those seen in the patient population with acute distal biceps [6].
• The study examined clinical and surgical outcomes for distal biceps tendon repairs in a large cohort, finding that anterior single incision techniques were used in the majority of cases with varying fixation methods [13].
• This is a safe and successful technique for the management of distal biceps tendon ruptures [15].
• Patients that underwent distal biceps reconstruction with a graft had similar failure rates, reoperation rates, and final range of motion compared to primary repair [18].
• Minor complications were common after distal biceps tendon repair; however, most were sensory nerve injuries that resolved with time [26].
• This is the largest analysis of complications after distal biceps repair, indicating a major complication rate of 4.6% [31].
• Complication rates after distal biceps tendon repair performed by newly trained surgeons were similar to those previously reported in large cohort studies, with nerve injury as the most common complication [38].

Complication Rates and Outcomes¶

Specific Complications and Risk Factors¶

• Timing significantly impacts surgical technique selection in distal biceps tendon ruptures, with direct repair favored for acute injuries and high flexion angle repair or allograft reconstruction for chronic cases [39].

Functional Recovery and Strength¶

• Distal biceps repair/reconstruction can restore near-normal flexion and supination strength [108].

Key Evidence¶

• [L1] The overall frequency of reported complications is higher for single-incision distal biceps repair than for double-incision repair. [1] (10.1177/2325967116668137)
• [L5] [2] (10.1177/17585732241245054)
• [L1] Surgical treatment of chronic distal biceps injuries yields favorable objective and subjective outcomes. [3] (10.1016/j.xrrt.2022.02.007)
• [L3] Nevertheless, the short-term clinical influence of biceps complications on shoulder outcome is very limited. [4] (10.1177/2325967121s00362)
• [L3] Complication rates after distal biceps repair are low. [5] (10.5397/cise.2021.00472)
• [L4] Although there may be a slightly higher immediate complication rate, the functional outcomes remain comparable with those seen in the patient population with acute distal biceps. [6] (10.1177/23259671211065772)
• [L3] Distal biceps repair is associated with a 7.5% major complication rate and 4.5% reoperation rate. [7] (10.1016/j.jse.2018.06.028)
• [L3] Surgical repair of distal biceps tendon ruptures has an overall low rate of serious complications regardless of approach or technique. [8] (10.1016/j.jse.2017.06.021)
• [L3] Surgical repair of distal biceps tendon ruptures has an overall low rate of serious complications regardless of approach or technique. [9] (10.1016/j.jse.2017.06.020)
• [L3] Patients can be consulted that direct repair in the acute setting is preferred; however, even in the setting of a distal biceps reconstruction with graft augmentation, they can expect low complications and good functional results. [10] (10.1016/j.jseint.2020.10.023)
• [L3] The surgical repair of distal biceps tendon ruptures has an overall low rate of serious complications, regardless of approach or technique. [11] (10.1177/0363546517720200)
• [L3] The surgical repair of distal biceps tendon ruptures has an overall low rate of serious complications, regardless of approach or technique. [12] (10.1016/j.arthro.2017.08.065)
• [L3] The study examined clinical and surgical outcomes for distal biceps tendon repairs in a large cohort, finding that anterior single incision techniques were used in the majority of cases with varying fixation methods. [13] (10.1016/j.jse.2016.12.053)
• [L4] Patients should be counseled that 1 in 5 patients will have a minor complication and 1 in 20 patients will have a major complication after surgery on the distal biceps tendon. [14] (10.1016/j.jse.2016.02.032)
• [Paper] This is a safe and successful technique for the management of distal biceps tendon ruptures. [15] (10.1007/s00402-009-0974-x)
• [L2] Surgical management of distal biceps tears was a predictor of improved patient-reported outcomes only for patients with complete tears. [16] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2025.12.027)
• [Paper] Distal biceps injuries frequently occur in middle-aged males after an eccentric load to the elbow in flexion. [17] (10.1016/j.injury.2025.112556)
• [L3] Patients that underwent distal biceps reconstruction with a graft had similar failure rates, reoperation rates, and final range of motion compared to primary repair. [18] (10.1016/j.jse.2020.01.062)
• [L4] Isolated short head ruptures are a rare and distinct form of distal biceps tear that present with consistent clinical findings that can aid in diagnosis. [19] (10.1016/j.jse.2020.04.038)
• [L4] The incidence of women sustaining a distal biceps tendon tear is 3.2%, with partial tears being statistically more common than complete ruptures. [20] (10.1016/j.jse.2014.02.006)
• [L5] In both patients, flexion and supination strength returned to normal limits when compared with the opposite upper extremity. [22] (10.1016/j.jht.2020.03.013)
• [L4] The early complication rate following partial distal biceps tendon repair was 20.5%. [23] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2025.04.012)
• [Paper] Injury to the distal biceps typically occurs in middle aged, higher demand patients who often require surgical reconstruction to optimize outcome and performance. [24] (10.1016/j.csm.2020.02.004)
• [L4] There was a 7-fold and a 28-fold increase in the incidence of distal biceps tendon rupture surgery in Finnish and Swedish men during 1997 to 2016. [25] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2020.07.024)
• [L4] Minor complications were common after distal biceps tendon repair; however, most were sensory nerve injuries that resolved with time. [26] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2012.06.022)
• [Case_report] Anatomic reattachment of the distal biceps tendon is a successful operative treatment option. [29] (10.1186/s12891-020-03304-3)
• [L2] This is the largest analysis of complications after distal biceps repair, indicating a major complication rate of 4.6%. [31] (10.1177/0363546519899933)
• [L4] The evidence-based diagnostic algorithm using the combination of the FIT and hook test demonstrates high accuracy for the diagnosis of both complete and high-grade partial distal biceps tendon tears. [33] (10.1016/j.asmr.2021.01.010)
• [L4] [36] (10.1016/j.jse.2017.12.010)
• [L4] Complication rates after distal biceps tendon repair performed by newly trained surgeons were similar to those previously reported in large cohort studies, with nerve injury as the most common complication. [38] (10.1016/j.jse.2022.09.014)
• [L3] Timing significantly impacts surgical technique selection in distal biceps tendon ruptures, with direct repair favored for acute injuries and high flexion angle repair or allograft reconstruction for chronic cases. [39] (10.1016/j.jse.2025.07.027)
• [L4] The finding that distal biceps MRI signal changes consistent with tendinopathy are common even in asymptomatic elbows reduces the probability that symptoms correlate with pathology on imaging. [42] (10.5397/cise.2023.00164)
• [L3] The prevalence of distal biceps tendon signal changes on MRI in asymptomatic patients is very low. [43] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2022.01.020)
• [L5] Nonoperative management does not restore function to the elbow. [45] (10.1007/s11552-013-9551-4)
• [L4] [46] (10.1302/2058-5241.6.200145)
• [Paper] [47] (10.1016/j.injury.2013.01.003)
• [L4] Distal biceps tendon repair surgery can be safely and successfully executed with either a single- or double-incision approach. [48] (10.1016/j.jse.2010.11.009)
• [L4] Athletes sustaining distal biceps tendon rupture have a high postoperative return to sport rate, independently of selected surgical technique or rehabilitation program. [50] (10.1016/j.jse.2022.02.027)
• [L4] [52] (10.1097/00130911-199812000-00005)
• [L4] Surgical repair of the distal biceps insertion reliably regains both supination and flexion strength in appropriate patients. [55] (10.5435/00124635-201003000-00003)
• [L3] WC patients who underwent distal biceps tendon repair took longer to return to work and had worse DASH scores than non-WC patients. [56] (10.1016/j.jse.2012.11.011)
• [L4] [69] (10.1016/s1058-2746(00)90059-4)
• [L1] The results of this meta-analysis showed the superiority of surgical management over the nonoperative approach for distal biceps tendon detachment, with superior flexion and supination strength and better patient-reported outcomes. [73] (10.1177/23259671211037311)
• [L4] Single anterior incision with suture anchor repair may be utilized for repair of ruptures of the distal biceps tendon with good clinical and functional outcomes and minimal loss of range of motion and strength. [80] (10.1097/bco.0000000000000529)
• [L3] O'Driscoll hook test sensitivity is not 100% but remains a useful clinical test to assess patients with suspected distal biceps tendon tears; a negative test does not exclude rupture. [81] (10.1177/1758573219847146)
• [L5] [86] (10.1530/eor-23-0035)
• [L4] Distal biceps tendon ruptures were most commonly observed in weightlifting with a slightly flexed or isometrically extended elbow and forearm supination. [98] (10.1016/j.jse.2023.02.061)
• [L5] Distal biceps repair/reconstruction can restore near-normal flexion and supination strength. [108] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2019.09.014)
• [Paper] Surgical reinsertion of the biceps tendon to the radial tuberosity is considered the treatment of choice for most complete ruptures. [112] (10.1097/bte.0000000000000011)
• [L4] [119] (10.1177/23259671251322700)
• [L5] [120] (10.1016/s1058-2746(05)80044-8)

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