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骨骼如何愈合与重塑

Illustration: 骨骼如何愈合与重塑

本页面由机器翻译,尚未经临床医生审核。英文版本为权威版本。

骨骼摸起来坚实且永恒,但它实际上是活组织,内部交织着细胞和血管,并且在你生命的每一天都在被分解和重建。正因如此,断裂的骨骼能够重新愈合,恢复到与之前一样坚固的状态。愈合遵循可预测的顺序,且所需时间通常比大多数人预期的要长,因此了解这一过程会使等待期少许多担忧。本页以通俗易懂的语言解释了骨骼是什么以及它如何修复;随后,对于感兴趣的人,深入探讨了生物学机制,包括骨骼如何不断进行自身重塑,以及当这种机制反过来作用于骨骼时会发生什么。

骨骼是什么及其功能

骨骼同时承担多项功能。它是身体的支架:支撑身体直立,并为肌肉提供牵拉以产生运动的框架。它是盔甲,保护大脑、心脏和肺部。它还是矿物质的储存库,尤其是钙,身体其他部分会持续从中汲取。

为了完成所有这些功能,骨骼是一种复合材料,类似于钢筋混凝土。柔韧的蛋白质网状结构(主要是胶原蛋白)赋予其韧性,使其能轻微弯曲而不断裂;而填充在该网状结构中的坚硬矿物质(磷酸钙晶体)则赋予其刚度和抗压强度。去除矿物质,骨骼会变得像橡胶一样柔软;去除胶原蛋白,骨骼则会像粉笔一样脆。两者缺一不可。

但骨骼并非惰性物质。它充满活细胞,并遍布血管,这就是骨骼断裂时会出血的原因,也是良好的血液供应对愈合至关重要的原因,更是骨骼与刮花的桌子不同、能够自我修复的原因。

骨折如何愈合

当骨骼断裂时,它会经历相互重叠的阶段,将断裂处的间隙重新转化为坚固的骨骼。

  1. 血肿(最初几天)。 骨折撕裂了骨骼内部及周围的血管,血液在骨折处形成血凝块。这不仅仅是一个塞子;它是召唤修复细胞的支架和信号中心。这也是为什么早期该区域会出现肿胀、瘀伤和疼痛的原因。
  2. 软骨痂(最初几周)。 修复细胞迁入并跨越间隙铺设一层柔软、有弹性的软骨和未成熟组织桥。此时骨骼已连接,但连接松散:这就是为什么新鲜骨折在桥接结构脆弱期间需要通过石膏、夹板或手术进行保护的原因。
  3. 硬骨痂(数周至数月)。 柔软的桥接结构逐渐被坚硬、矿化的骨骼取代,在骨折处周围形成一个膨大的袖套(即骨痂)。到这一阶段结束时,骨骼通常已足够坚固,可承受日常使用。
  4. 重塑(数月至数年)。 凹凸不平的骨痂沿着应力线被缓慢修整和重塑,直到骨骼的外观和功能与受伤前非常相似。在儿童中,这种重塑效果极佳,即使骨折略有歪斜,也能随时间自行矫正。

愈合过程确实缓慢,这是正常的。作为一个大致的参考,许多成人骨折需要大约六到十二周才能变得坚固,而恢复完全强度则需要更长时间;完善形状的重塑过程可能持续一年或更久。时间线取决于骨骼、个人和损伤情况,因此请将这些视为指导而非承诺。

促进愈合的因素

有几个方面会产生实质性影响,且大多由您自己掌控:

  • 血供与骨折端稳定。 当骨折断端拥有良好的血液供应并被相对固定时,骨骼愈合效果最佳,这正是使用石膏或进行手术的核心目的。活动过度或血供不良是导致骨折延迟愈合的最常见原因。
  • 不吸烟。 吸烟和尼古丁会使血管收缩,从而显著减缓骨骼愈合。戒烟,即使在受伤或手术前后进行,也有助于愈合。
  • 营养。 骨骼由蛋白质和矿物质构成,因此充足的蛋白质、钙和维生素 D 支持愈合。大多数人不需要超大剂量;他们需要的是避免缺乏。
  • 合理的负重。 骨骼对使用有反应。遵循您获得的负重和运动建议,不过度也不不足,可引导愈合中的骨骼在正确的位置重建。
  • 时间与复查。 大多数骨折会按照其自身的时间表愈合。如果本应改善的骨折没有改善,值得进行复查;有些需要手术的帮助。

深入探讨

Advanced reading: the deeper science (optional)

本节将提供更详细、面向学生水平的解释,阐述上述所有内容的生物学基础。理解骨折及其治疗并不需要这部分内容,但如果您对骨骼的实际运作机制,以及修复骨折的同一套机制如何反过来作用于骨骼感到好奇,请继续阅读。

骨作为活组织

骨细胞——骨祖细胞(成骨前体细胞)、具有成骨功能的成骨细胞、埋藏于骨内的骨细胞,以及位于骨表面的大型多核破骨细胞。
角色阵容——成骨细胞(负责骨形成)、它们被包裹在骨内后所变成的骨细胞,以及体积较大的破骨细胞(负责骨溶解)。 OpenStax, Anatomy & Physiology, CC BY 3.0

骨骼由三种主要细胞类型构建并维持,了解它们的名称很有帮助,因为后续几乎所有内容都是关于它们之间平衡的故事:

  • 成骨细胞是建造者。它们沉积新骨:首先是柔软的胶原框架(骨样组织),随后将其矿化为硬骨。
  • 破骨细胞是拆除队。它们是大型多核细胞,通过酸溶解矿物、通过酶消化胶原来溶解骨骼。
  • 骨细胞是先前被包裹在它们所构建的骨骼中的成骨细胞。它们位于由庞大通道网络连接的小腔室中,像传感器网格一样贯穿整个骨骼。正如我们将看到的,它们是感知机械负荷并指导另外两种细胞的细胞。

这些细胞所栖居的坚硬基质是由羟基磷灰石(一种钙磷矿物)晶体强化的I型胶原。骨骼具有两种结构:长骨干中的致密皮质骨(密质骨),以及骨端和脊柱内部的疏松松质骨(网质骨,呈开放晶格状)。

愈合级联反应

骨折修复的四个阶段——骨折血肿、纤维软骨(软)痂、骨性(硬)痂和重塑。
愈合级联反应——骨折血肿形成,随后被软性(软骨)骨痂桥接,再被硬性骨性骨痂替代,最终重塑回接近原始形态。 OpenStax, Anatomy & Physiology, CC BY 3.0

上述四个通俗阶段对应着一个精确的生物学序列。骨折处的血肿(血凝块)会释放大量炎症信号和生长因子,从而招募干细胞。这些细胞首先形成软(软骨)痂:骨骼在软骨模板上构建,这一过程称为软骨内成骨,也是儿童时期骨骼生长的主要方式。随后,血管侵入软骨并将其替换为编织骨,即硬痂,最终重塑为成熟的、有组织的板层骨。

这就是继发性(间接)愈合(通过骨痂愈合),当骨折端存在轻微活动度时(例如使用石膏固定时)会发生此过程。此外还有原发性(直接)愈合,仅当骨折端被刚性固定、无间隙且无活动时才会发生(例如在金属钢板下受压固定)。在这种情况下,完全不会形成骨痂:骨骼直接在骨折线处重塑连接。两者并无“优劣”之分;它们是骨骼针对不同力学条件的两种反应,因此外科医生会根据骨折情况选择相应的固定方式。

重塑与切割锥

显示骨单位(哈弗斯系统)的密质骨示意图——围绕中央管的同心骨环(骨板),骨细胞位于骨陷窝内。
密质骨由骨单位构成——骨单位是围绕中央血管管腔的同心骨环。每个骨单位都是破骨锥(切割锥)的完成作品。 OpenStax, Anatomy & Physiology, CC BY 3.0

即使未发生骨折的骨骼也在持续不断地重建:您每年大约会替换自身骨骼的十分之一。这种终身的更新过程称为重塑,由被称为基本多细胞单位(BMU)的细胞团队执行。

在致密的皮质骨中,您可以将BMU视为一台微观的隧道挖掘机器。在其前端,一群破骨细胞在骨骼中钻出一条隧道,并在推进过程中将其溶解:这个吸收尖端即为切割锥。紧随其后,在闭合锥中,成骨细胞沿着新鲜隧道的内壁排列,并从壁面向内填充,围绕携带血管的中心通道沉积同心环状的新骨。完成的圆柱体,即围绕中心管腔的骨环,是一个骨单位,是密质骨的基本结构单元。因此,重塑并非随机过程:它是由拆除后重建组成的协调车队,将新的、排列整齐的骨骼穿过旧骨。

这也是为什么健康的骨骼需要两种细胞类型协同工作。引领切割锥的破骨细胞正是那些在失调时驱动下文所述骨丢失疾病的细胞。

耦合开关:RANK、RANKL 和 OPG

建造者如何控制拆除队?通过一个分子开关,了解它很有价值,因为它是正常骨重塑以及多种疾病(以及多种药物)背后的杠杆。

成骨细胞谱系细胞表达一种称为 RANKL 的信号。当 RANKL 结合到破骨细胞前体细胞表面的受体 RANK 上时,它会指示它们成熟为具有活性、能溶解骨骼的破骨细胞。因此,建造者 掌握着 拆除队 的遥控器。为了施加制动,相同的成骨细胞分泌一种称为 OPG(骨保护素) 的诱饵,在 RANKL 到达 RANK 之前将其清除。因此,RANKL 与 OPG 的比率 决定了骨吸收的速度:RANKL 较多会使平衡倾向于骨丢失,OPG 较多则倾向于骨保留。

几乎每一个影响骨骼的信号(激素、炎症、药物)最终都会拉动这个杠杆。例如,骨质疏松症药物 地舒单抗(denosumab) 的作用机制正是如此:它是一种人造抗体,作用类似于 OPG,通过吸收 RANKL 来关闭破骨细胞。请记住这个开关;接下来的两个部分都是关于 RANKL 被推向错误方向的故事。

机械转导与沃尔夫定律

骨骼以著名方式适应施加于其上的负荷。“骨骼在需要处沉积,在不需要处吸收”即沃尔夫定律,这解释了为何网球运动员持拍手臂的骨密度更高,为何宇航员和卧床患者会丢失骨量,以及为何合理的负荷有助于骨折在正确位置重建。

感知负荷的细胞是埋藏于骨内的骨细胞。当骨骼承受负荷时,液体被挤压穿过其周围的微小通道,骨细胞感知到这种流动,这一过程称为机械转导(将机械信号转化为生物信号)。承受负荷的骨细胞下调一种名为硬化蛋白的制动分子,从而释放成骨细胞进行构建;未受负荷的骨骼则相反,被交付给吸收过程。因此,“用进废退”不仅仅是一句口号;它是骨细胞根据你所做的活动调整RANKL/OPG平衡的结果。

当重塑出错时:骨溶解与刺猬蛋白

骨溶解(Osteolysis)仅指骨骼被溶解:破骨细胞不受控制地活动,通常是因为某种因素将 RANKL 开关卡在“开启”位置。这是肿瘤侵蚀骨骼的原因,也是导致假体松动(见下一节)以及某些炎症性疾病中骨骼被掏空的原因。

这里一个较为令人意外的调控因子是刺猬蛋白(Sonic hedgehog, Shh),这是一种信号分子,最为人熟知的是其在胚胎发育中塑造身体蓝图的作用(它有助于排列肢体和指/趾)。同一通路在成人骨骼中被重新利用,且作用具有双向性。在骨折愈合过程中,Shh 信号实际上起辅助作用;它支持成骨细胞和骨形成。但在骨溶解过程中,其作用相反:Shh 通过其下游信使Gli 发挥作用,促使支持性的基质细胞产生更多的 RANKL,而更多的 RANKL 意味着更多的破骨细胞和更多的骨骼溶解。值得注意的是,Shh 本身并不直接吸收骨骼;它通过放大 RANKL 通路发挥作用,这正是它在癌症相关骨破坏等疾病中表现为加重因素的原因。这很好地说明了贯穿本页的一个主题:大多数骨病都是正常的重塑机制(切割锥、RANKL 开关)被推向某一极端的结果。

聚乙烯磨损与假体松动

正是在这里,生物学变得非常具有实际意义,因为它解释了关节置换术最终为何会失效。髋关节或膝关节置换术具有光滑的轴承表面,传统上是一个坚硬的球体或金属部件在聚乙烯(医用级塑料)衬垫上滑动。经过多年的使用,摩擦会脱落数量极其庞大的磨损颗粒(聚乙烯),这些颗粒小到肉眼无法看见,且以数十亿计的规模脱落。

身体将这些颗粒视为入侵者。假体周围的清道夫免疫细胞(巨噬细胞)试图吞噬它们,但塑料无法被消化,因此受挫的巨噬细胞转而释放炎症信号。这些信号可预测地驱动RANKL水平升高,招募破骨细胞去吸收假体周围的骨骼。这种颗粒诱导的(或磨损性)骨溶解悄无声息地侵蚀着骨性固定基础,最终导致假体松动,这是关节置换术失效并需要翻修手术的主要原因之一,通常发生在术后十年或更久之后。它与上述所有内容遵循相同的最终共同通路:外部触发因素,通过RANKL汇聚,最终导致破骨细胞溶解骨骼。理解这一点正是为何在工程上投入大量精力开发更好的轴承材料(如交联聚乙烯)的原因,这些材料脱落的颗粒更少且危害更小。

促进与阻碍愈合的因素

最后,是实际因素,现在有了生物学来解释它们:

  • 血供为愈合提供所需的细胞、氧气和信号;软组织包膜被剥离或粉碎,或血供较差的骨骼发生骨折,愈合缓慢。这是单一最大影响因素。
  • 稳定性使骨痂得以成熟;过度活动会反复破坏脆弱的早期桥接结构,是导致骨不连(骨折未能愈合)的常见途径。
  • 吸烟和尼古丁使血管收缩并损害修复细胞:这是公认的阻碍骨骼愈合的因素。
  • 糖尿病和某些药物(长期使用皮质类固醇,以及新鲜骨折前后使用某些非甾体抗炎药)可能延缓愈合。
  • 营养(充足的蛋白质、钙和维生素D)提供原材料;缺乏而非过量是需要避免的问题。
  • 年龄使细胞机制减慢,但骨骼在整个生命周期中仍保持着显著的愈合能力。

另请参阅


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k. Sui Generis Database Rights means rights other than copyright resulting from Directive 96/9/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 March 1996 on the legal protection of databases, as amended and/or succeeded, as well as other essentially equivalent rights anywhere in the world.

l. You means the individual or entity exercising the Licensed Rights under this Public License. Your has a corresponding meaning.

Section 2 -- Scope.

a. License grant.

1. Subject to the terms and conditions of this Public License, the Licensor hereby grants You a worldwide, royalty-free, non-sublicensable, non-exclusive, irrevocable license to exercise the Licensed Rights in the Licensed Material to:

a. reproduce and Share the Licensed Material, in whole or in part, for NonCommercial purposes only; and

b. produce, reproduce, and Share Adapted Material for NonCommercial purposes only.

2. Exceptions and Limitations. For the avoidance of doubt, where Exceptions and Limitations apply to Your use, this Public License does not apply, and You do not need to comply with its terms and conditions.

3. Term. The term of this Public License is specified in Section 6(a).

4. Media and formats; technical modifications allowed. The Licensor authorizes You to exercise the Licensed Rights in all media and formats whether now known or hereafter created, and to make technical modifications necessary to do so. The Licensor waives and/or agrees not to assert any right or authority to forbid You from making technical modifications necessary to exercise the Licensed Rights, including technical modifications necessary to circumvent Effective Technological Measures. For purposes of this Public License, simply making modifications authorized by this Section 2(a) (4) never produces Adapted Material.

5. Downstream recipients.

a. Offer from the Licensor -- Licensed Material. Every recipient of the Licensed Material automatically receives an offer from the Licensor to exercise the Licensed Rights under the terms and conditions of this Public License.

b. No downstream restrictions. You may not offer or impose any additional or different terms or conditions on, or apply any Effective Technological Measures to, the Licensed Material if doing so restricts exercise of the Licensed Rights by any recipient of the Licensed Material.

6. No endorsement. Nothing in this Public License constitutes or may be construed as permission to assert or imply that You are, or that Your use of the Licensed Material is, connected with, or sponsored, endorsed, or granted official status by, the Licensor or others designated to receive attribution as provided in Section 3(a)(1)(A)(i).

b. Other rights.

1. Moral rights, such as the right of integrity, are not licensed under this Public License, nor are publicity, privacy, and/or other similar personality rights; however, to the extent possible, the Licensor waives and/or agrees not to assert any such rights held by the Licensor to the limited extent necessary to allow You to exercise the Licensed Rights, but not otherwise.

2. Patent and trademark rights are not licensed under this Public License.

3. To the extent possible, the Licensor waives any right to collect royalties from You for the exercise of the Licensed Rights, whether directly or through a collecting society under any voluntary or waivable statutory or compulsory licensing scheme. In all other cases the Licensor expressly reserves any right to collect such royalties, including when the Licensed Material is used other than for NonCommercial purposes.

Section 3 -- License Conditions.

Your exercise of the Licensed Rights is expressly made subject to the following conditions.

a. Attribution.

1. If You Share the Licensed Material (including in modified form), You must:

a. retain the following if it is supplied by the Licensor with the Licensed Material:

i. identification of the creator(s) of the Licensed Material and any others designated to receive attribution, in any reasonable manner requested by the Licensor (including by pseudonym if designated);

ii. a copyright notice;

iii. a notice that refers to this Public License;

iv. a notice that refers to the disclaimer of warranties;

v. a URI or hyperlink to the Licensed Material to the extent reasonably practicable;

b. indicate if You modified the Licensed Material and retain an indication of any previous modifications; and

c. indicate the Licensed Material is licensed under this Public License, and include the text of, or the URI or hyperlink to, this Public License.

2. You may satisfy the conditions in Section 3(a)(1) in any reasonable manner based on the medium, means, and context in which You Share the Licensed Material. For example, it may be reasonable to satisfy the conditions by providing a URI or hyperlink to a resource that includes the required information.

3. If requested by the Licensor, You must remove any of the information required by Section 3(a)(1)(A) to the extent reasonably practicable.

4. If You Share Adapted Material You produce, the Adapter's License You apply must not prevent recipients of the Adapted Material from complying with this Public License.

Section 4 -- Sui Generis Database Rights.

Where the Licensed Rights include Sui Generis Database Rights that apply to Your use of the Licensed Material:

a. for the avoidance of doubt, Section 2(a)(1) grants You the right to extract, reuse, reproduce, and Share all or a substantial portion of the contents of the database for NonCommercial purposes only;

b. if You include all or a substantial portion of the database contents in a database in which You have Sui Generis Database Rights, then the database in which You have Sui Generis Database Rights (but not its individual contents) is Adapted Material; and

c. You must comply with the conditions in Section 3(a) if You Share all or a substantial portion of the contents of the database.

For the avoidance of doubt, this Section 4 supplements and does not replace Your obligations under this Public License where the Licensed Rights include other Copyright and Similar Rights.

Section 5 -- Disclaimer of Warranties and Limitation of Liability.

a. UNLESS OTHERWISE SEPARATELY UNDERTAKEN BY THE LICENSOR, TO THE EXTENT POSSIBLE, THE LICENSOR OFFERS THE LICENSED MATERIAL AS-IS AND AS-AVAILABLE, AND MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE LICENSED MATERIAL, WHETHER EXPRESS, IMPLIED, STATUTORY, OR OTHER. THIS INCLUDES, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES OF TITLE, MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, ABSENCE OF LATENT OR OTHER DEFECTS, ACCURACY, OR THE PRESENCE OR ABSENCE OF ERRORS, WHETHER OR NOT KNOWN OR DISCOVERABLE. WHERE DISCLAIMERS OF WARRANTIES ARE NOT ALLOWED IN FULL OR IN PART, THIS DISCLAIMER MAY NOT APPLY TO YOU.

b. TO THE EXTENT POSSIBLE, IN NO EVENT WILL THE LICENSOR BE LIABLE TO YOU ON ANY LEGAL THEORY (INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, NEGLIGENCE) OR OTHERWISE FOR ANY DIRECT, SPECIAL, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE, EXEMPLARY, OR OTHER LOSSES, COSTS, EXPENSES, OR DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF THIS PUBLIC LICENSE OR USE OF THE LICENSED MATERIAL, EVEN IF THE LICENSOR HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH LOSSES, COSTS, EXPENSES, OR DAMAGES. WHERE A LIMITATION OF LIABILITY IS NOT ALLOWED IN FULL OR IN PART, THIS LIMITATION MAY NOT APPLY TO YOU.

c. The disclaimer of warranties and limitation of liability provided above shall be interpreted in a manner that, to the extent possible, most closely approximates an absolute disclaimer and waiver of all liability.

Section 6 -- Term and Termination.

a. This Public License applies for the term of the Copyright and Similar Rights licensed here. However, if You fail to comply with this Public License, then Your rights under this Public License terminate automatically.

b. Where Your right to use the Licensed Material has terminated under Section 6(a), it reinstates:

1. automatically as of the date the violation is cured, provided it is cured within 30 days of Your discovery of the violation; or

2. upon express reinstatement by the Licensor.

For the avoidance of doubt, this Section 6(b) does not affect any right the Licensor may have to seek remedies for Your violations of this Public License.

c. For the avoidance of doubt, the Licensor may also offer the Licensed Material under separate terms or conditions or stop distributing the Licensed Material at any time; however, doing so will not terminate this Public License.

d. Sections 1, 5, 6, 7, and 8 survive termination of this Public License.

Section 7 -- Other Terms and Conditions.

a. The Licensor shall not be bound by any additional or different terms or conditions communicated by You unless expressly agreed.

b. Any arrangements, understandings, or agreements regarding the Licensed Material not stated herein are separate from and independent of the terms and conditions of this Public License.

Section 8 -- Interpretation.

a. For the avoidance of doubt, this Public License does not, and shall not be interpreted to, reduce, limit, restrict, or impose conditions on any use of the Licensed Material that could lawfully be made without permission under this Public License.

b. To the extent possible, if any provision of this Public License is deemed unenforceable, it shall be automatically reformed to the minimum extent necessary to make it enforceable. If the provision cannot be reformed, it shall be severed from this Public License without affecting the enforceability of the remaining terms and conditions.

c. No term or condition of this Public License will be waived and no failure to comply consented to unless expressly agreed to by the Licensor.

d. Nothing in this Public License constitutes or may be interpreted as a limitation upon, or waiver of, any privileges and immunities that apply to the Licensor or You, including from the legal processes of any jurisdiction or authority.


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