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骨骼如何愈合与重塑

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本页面由机器翻译,尚未经临床医生审核。英文版本为权威版本。

骨骼感觉坚实而永久,但它实际上是活体组织,由细胞和血管交织而成,并且在您的一生中每天都在被分解和重建。这正是骨折能够重新愈合,并恢复到与之前同样强度的原因。愈合遵循一个可预测的过程,其所需时间比大多数人预期的要长,因此了解这一过程可以让等待变得不那么令人担忧。本页以通俗易懂的语言解释了骨骼是什么以及它是如何愈合的;然后,对于好奇的读者,进一步深入探讨其生物学机制,包括骨骼如何不断进行自我重塑,以及当这种机制被“调转方向”攻击骨骼时会发生什么。

骨骼是什么及其功能

骨骼同时承担多项功能。它是身体的支架:支撑身体的框架,肌肉通过牵拉该框架来实现运动。它也是盔甲,保护大脑、心脏和肺部。它还是矿物质的储存库,尤其是钙,身体其他部分会持续从中汲取钙质。

为了实现所有这些功能,骨骼是一种复合材料,类似于钢筋混凝土。柔性的蛋白质网状结构(主要是胶原蛋白)赋予其韧性,使其能够轻微弯曲而不断裂;而填充在该网状结构中的坚硬矿物质(磷酸钙晶体)则赋予其刚性和抗压强度。若去除矿物质,骨骼会变得有弹性;若去除胶原蛋白,骨骼则会像粉笔一样脆。两者缺一不可。

但骨骼并非惰性组织。它充满活细胞,并密布血管,这就是为什么骨折时会出血,为什么良好的血液供应对愈合至关重要,以及为什么骨骼不像刮花的桌子那样无法自我修复。

骨折如何愈合

当骨骼发生断裂时,它会经历重叠的阶段,将断裂处的间隙重新转化为坚实的骨骼。

  1. 血肿形成(最初几天)。 骨折撕裂了骨骼内部及周围的血管,血液在骨折处形成血肿。这不仅仅是一个塞子;它是招募修复细胞的支架和信号中心。这也是为什么早期该区域会出现肿胀、瘀伤和疼痛的原因。
  2. 软性骨痂(最初几周)。 修复细胞进入并跨越间隙,铺设由软骨和未成熟组织构成的柔软、有弹性的桥梁。此时骨骼已连接,但连接较为松散:这就是为什么在桥梁结构脆弱时,新鲜骨折需要用石膏、夹板固定或进行手术保护的原因。
  3. 硬性骨痂(数周至数月)。 柔软的桥梁逐渐被坚硬的矿化骨骼所取代,在骨折周围形成粗大的袖套状结构(即骨痂)。在此阶段结束时,骨骼通常已足够坚固,可以进行日常活动。
  4. 重塑(数月至数年)。 凹凸不平的骨痂沿着应力线被缓慢雕刻并重塑,直到骨骼的外观和功能恢复到与之前非常相似的状态。在儿童中,这种重塑效果非常好,因此略微错位的骨折随着时间的推移可以自行变直。

愈合过程确实缓慢,这是正常的。作为一个粗略的指南,许多成人骨折需要大约六到十二周才能变得坚固,而恢复完全强度则需要更长时间;完善形状的重塑过程可能会持续一年或更久。时间线取决于骨骼、个人和损伤情况,因此请将这些视为指南,而非承诺。

促进愈合的因素

以下几方面能产生显著影响,且大多由您自行控制:

  • 血液供应与骨折稳定。 当骨折断端具有良好的血液供应并保持相对静止时,骨骼愈合效果最佳,这正是石膏固定或手术的目的。活动过多或血液供应不良是骨折愈合迟缓最常见的原因。
  • 戒烟。 吸烟和尼古丁会使血管收缩,并显著延缓骨骼愈合。即使是在受伤或手术前后戒烟,也有助于愈合。
  • 营养。 骨骼由蛋白质和矿物质构成,因此充足的蛋白质、维生素D有助于愈合。大多数人无需超大剂量补充;关键在于避免缺乏。
  • 合理的负重。 骨骼对使用有反应。遵循医嘱进行负重和锻炼,不过多也不过少,可引导愈合中的骨骼在正确部位重建。
  • 时间与复查。 大多数骨折会按其自身的时间线愈合。如果本应好转的骨折未见改善,则值得复查;部分病例需要手术辅助。

更深入的了解

本节将深入到一个更详细、适合学生水平的解释,探讨上述所有内容背后的生物学原理。了解骨折及其治疗并不需要这部分内容,但如果您对骨骼实际如何运作,以及修复骨折的同一套机制如何反过来损害骨骼结构感兴趣,请继续阅读。

骨骼作为活体组织

骨骼由三种主要细胞类型构建并维持,了解它们的名称至关重要,因为后续所有内容都围绕它们之间的平衡展开:

  • 成骨细胞(Osteoblasts)建造者。它们沉积新骨:首先形成柔软的胶原框架(骨样组织),随后将其矿化为坚硬骨骼。
  • 破骨细胞(Osteoclasts)拆除队。它们是大型多核细胞,通过酸蚀溶解矿物质,并通过酶消化胶原蛋白来分解骨骼。
  • 骨细胞(Osteocytes)是被困在自身构建的骨骼中的前成骨细胞。它们位于微小的腔隙中,通过庞大的通道网络连接,如同遍布骨骼的传感器网格般相互连接。正如我们将看到的,它们是感知机械负荷并指导其他两种细胞的细胞。

这些细胞生存的坚硬基质由I型胶原构成,并因羟基磷灰石(一种钙磷矿物)晶体而硬化。骨骼具有两种结构:长骨干中的致密皮质(密质)骨,以及骨端和脊柱内部的疏松小梁(松质)骨(一种开放网格结构)。

愈合级联

上述四个通俗阶段对应着精确的生物学过程。骨折血肿(凝块)释放大量炎症信号和生长因子,招募干细胞。这些细胞首先形成软(软骨)痂:骨是在软骨模板上形成的,这一过程称为软骨内成骨,也是儿童期骨骼大部分生长的方式。随后,软骨被血管侵入并替换为编织骨,即硬痂,最终重塑为成熟、有序的板层骨。

这是二期(间接)愈合(通过骨痂愈合),当骨折端存在轻微活动(如打石膏时)时就会发生这种情况。此外还有一期(直接)愈合,仅当骨折端被刚性固定、无间隙且无活动(例如在金属接骨板下加压)时才会发生。此时根本不会形成骨痂:骨直接跨越接合处进行重塑。两者并无优劣之分;它们是骨骼对不同力学条件的两种应对方式,这也是外科医生根据骨折类型选择固定方式的原因。

重塑与切削锥

即使完整的骨骼也在不断重建:你每年会替换大约十分之一的骨骼。这种终身的更新过程称为重塑,由被称为基本多细胞单位(BMUs)的细胞团队执行。

在致密的皮质骨中,你可以观察到BMU像微观的隧道掘进机一样工作。在其前端,一群破骨细胞在骨骼中直接钻出一个隧道,并在前进过程中溶解骨骼:这个吸收尖端称为切削锥。紧随其后的是闭合锥,成骨细胞沿着新鲜隧道排列,并从内壁向外填充,围绕携带血管的中心通道铺设同心环状的新骨。最终形成的圆柱体——围绕中央管腔的骨环——称为骨单位,这是密质骨的基本结构单位。因此,重塑并非随机过程:它是一系列协调有序的拆除与重建行动,将排列整齐的新骨嵌入旧骨之中。

这也是为什么健康的骨骼需要这两种细胞协同工作的原因。引导切削锥的破骨细胞,正是那些在失调时驱动下文所述骨丢失疾病的同一类细胞。

耦联开关:RANK、RANKL 和 OPG

“建筑工人”如何控制“拆迁队”?通过一个分子开关,了解它至关重要,因为它是正常重塑以及多种疾病(和多种药物)背后的杠杆。

成骨细胞谱系细胞表达一种称为 RANKL 的信号。当 RANKL 与破骨细胞前体表面的受体 RANK 结合时,会指示其成熟为具有活性的、溶解骨的破骨细胞。因此,“建筑工人”掌握着“拆迁队”的遥控器。为了施加制动,相同的成骨细胞会分泌一种名为 OPG(骨保护素) 的诱饵,在 RANKL 到达 RANK 之前将其清除。因此,RANKL 与 OPG 的比率 决定了骨吸收的速度:RANKL 增多会使平衡偏向骨丢失,而 OPG 增多则偏向骨保留。

几乎所有影响骨的因素(激素、炎症、药物)最终都会作用于这个杠杆。例如,骨质疏松症药物 地舒单抗(denosumab) 正是作用于此处:它是一种人工合成的抗体,作用类似于 OPG,通过吸收 RANKL 来关闭破骨细胞。请牢记这个开关;接下来的两节内容都是关于 RANKL 被错误驱动的故事。

机械转导与沃尔夫定律

骨骼以其对负荷的适应性而闻名。“骨骼在需要处生成,在不需要处吸收”沃尔夫定律,这也解释了为何网球运动员持拍手骨骼密度更高、宇航员和卧床患者骨质流失,以及合理的负荷有助于骨折在正确位置重建。

感知负荷的细胞是深埋于骨组织中的骨细胞。当骨骼承受负荷时,液体被挤压流过其周围微小的通道,骨细胞感知到这种流动,这一过程称为机械转导(将机械信号转化为生物信号)。受负荷的骨细胞会下调一种名为硬化蛋白(sclerostin)的抑制性分子,从而释放成骨细胞进行骨形成;而缺乏负荷的骨骼则相反,倾向于发生骨吸收。因此,“用进废退”不仅仅是一句口号;它是骨细胞根据活动情况调节RANKL/OPG平衡的结果。

重塑失常:骨溶解与声刺猬蛋白

骨溶解(Osteolysis) 仅指骨组织被溶解吸收:破骨细胞失控增殖,通常是因为某种因素将 RANKL 开关锁定在“开启”状态。这正是肿瘤侵蚀骨组织、假体松动(见下一节)以及某些炎症性疾病导致骨质空洞化的原因。

其中,声刺猬蛋白(Sonic hedgehog, Shh) 是这一过程中一个更为出人意料的调控因子。Shh 是一种信号分子,最为人所知的作用是在胚胎发育中塑造身体结构(它有助于肢体和指/趾的布局)。该通路在成人骨骼中同样被复用,且具有双重作用。在骨折愈合过程中,Shh 信号实际上 有益;它支持成骨细胞和骨形成。但在骨溶解中,它的作用则相反:Shh 通过其下游信使 Gli,促使支持性基质细胞产生更多的 RANKL,而更多的 RANKL 意味着更多的破骨细胞和更多的骨溶解。值得注意的是,Shh 本身并不直接吸收骨组织;它通过 放大 RANKL 通路发挥作用,这正是它作为癌症相关骨破坏等疾病中加重因素出现的原因。这很好地阐释了贯穿本页的一个主题:大多数骨病都是正常的重塑机制(切割骨单位、RANKL 开关)向某一方向过度作用的结果。

聚乙烯磨损与假体松动

在此,生物学变得非常具有临床意义,因为它解释了关节置换术最终失败的原因。髋关节或膝关节置换术具有光滑的承重面,传统上由坚硬的球体或金属组件与聚乙烯(医用级塑料)衬垫相对运动构成。在多年的使用过程中,摩擦会产生数量极其庞大的磨损颗粒,这些聚乙烯颗粒微小到肉眼无法看见,且以数十亿计。

机体将这些颗粒视为外来入侵物。假体周围的吞噬性免疫细胞(巨噬细胞)试图吞噬它们,但由于塑料无法被消化,受挫的巨噬细胞转而释放炎症信号。这些信号可预测地导致RANKL水平升高,招募破骨细胞对假体周围的骨组织进行吸收。这种颗粒诱导(或磨损)性骨溶解悄无声息地侵蚀骨性固定,最终导致假体松动,这是关节置换术磨损失效并需要翻修的主要原因,通常发生在术后十年或更久。它与上述所有情况的最终共同通路相同:外部触发因素,通过RANKL汇聚,最终导致破骨细胞溶解骨组织。理解这一点正是为何大量工程学研究致力于开发产生更少、麻烦更少的磨损颗粒的更好承重材料(如交联聚乙烯)的原因。

什么有助于和损害愈合

最后,这些实际因素,现在有了生物学解释:

  • 血液供应输送愈合所需的细胞、氧气和信号;软组织包膜被剥离或挫伤,或血供较差的骨骼发生骨折,愈合缓慢。这是最大的单一因素。
  • 稳定性使骨痂成熟;过度的活动会不断破坏脆弱的早期连接桥,是导致骨不连(骨折未能愈合)的常见原因。
  • 吸烟和尼古丁会收缩血管并损害修复细胞:这是已知的阻碍骨骼愈合的因素。
  • 糖尿病和一些药物(长期使用的类固醇,以及在新鲜骨折前后使用的一些抗炎药)会延缓愈合。
  • 营养(充足的蛋白质、维生素 D)提供原材料;需要避免的问题是缺乏,而非过剩。
  • 年龄会减缓细胞机制,但骨骼在整个生命周期中仍保留着显著的愈合能力。

参见


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1. Moral rights, such as the right of integrity, are not licensed under this Public License, nor are publicity, privacy, and/or other similar personality rights; however, to the extent possible, the Licensor waives and/or agrees not to assert any such rights held by the Licensor to the limited extent necessary to allow You to exercise the Licensed Rights, but not otherwise.

2. Patent and trademark rights are not licensed under this Public License.

3. To the extent possible, the Licensor waives any right to collect royalties from You for the exercise of the Licensed Rights, whether directly or through a collecting society under any voluntary or waivable statutory or compulsory licensing scheme. In all other cases the Licensor expressly reserves any right to collect such royalties, including when the Licensed Material is used other than for NonCommercial purposes.

Section 3 -- License Conditions.

Your exercise of the Licensed Rights is expressly made subject to the following conditions.

a. Attribution.

1. If You Share the Licensed Material (including in modified form), You must:

a. retain the following if it is supplied by the Licensor with the Licensed Material:

i. identification of the creator(s) of the Licensed Material and any others designated to receive attribution, in any reasonable manner requested by the Licensor (including by pseudonym if designated);

ii. a copyright notice;

iii. a notice that refers to this Public License;

iv. a notice that refers to the disclaimer of warranties;

v. a URI or hyperlink to the Licensed Material to the extent reasonably practicable;

b. indicate if You modified the Licensed Material and retain an indication of any previous modifications; and

c. indicate the Licensed Material is licensed under this Public License, and include the text of, or the URI or hyperlink to, this Public License.

2. You may satisfy the conditions in Section 3(a)(1) in any reasonable manner based on the medium, means, and context in which You Share the Licensed Material. For example, it may be reasonable to satisfy the conditions by providing a URI or hyperlink to a resource that includes the required information.

3. If requested by the Licensor, You must remove any of the information required by Section 3(a)(1)(A) to the extent reasonably practicable.

4. If You Share Adapted Material You produce, the Adapter's License You apply must not prevent recipients of the Adapted Material from complying with this Public License.

Section 4 -- Sui Generis Database Rights.

Where the Licensed Rights include Sui Generis Database Rights that apply to Your use of the Licensed Material:

a. for the avoidance of doubt, Section 2(a)(1) grants You the right to extract, reuse, reproduce, and Share all or a substantial portion of the contents of the database for NonCommercial purposes only;

b. if You include all or a substantial portion of the database contents in a database in which You have Sui Generis Database Rights, then the database in which You have Sui Generis Database Rights (but not its individual contents) is Adapted Material; and

c. You must comply with the conditions in Section 3(a) if You Share all or a substantial portion of the contents of the database.

For the avoidance of doubt, this Section 4 supplements and does not replace Your obligations under this Public License where the Licensed Rights include other Copyright and Similar Rights.

Section 5 -- Disclaimer of Warranties and Limitation of Liability.

a. UNLESS OTHERWISE SEPARATELY UNDERTAKEN BY THE LICENSOR, TO THE EXTENT POSSIBLE, THE LICENSOR OFFERS THE LICENSED MATERIAL AS-IS AND AS-AVAILABLE, AND MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE LICENSED MATERIAL, WHETHER EXPRESS, IMPLIED, STATUTORY, OR OTHER. THIS INCLUDES, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES OF TITLE, MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, ABSENCE OF LATENT OR OTHER DEFECTS, ACCURACY, OR THE PRESENCE OR ABSENCE OF ERRORS, WHETHER OR NOT KNOWN OR DISCOVERABLE. WHERE DISCLAIMERS OF WARRANTIES ARE NOT ALLOWED IN FULL OR IN PART, THIS DISCLAIMER MAY NOT APPLY TO YOU.

b. TO THE EXTENT POSSIBLE, IN NO EVENT WILL THE LICENSOR BE LIABLE TO YOU ON ANY LEGAL THEORY (INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, NEGLIGENCE) OR OTHERWISE FOR ANY DIRECT, SPECIAL, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE, EXEMPLARY, OR OTHER LOSSES, COSTS, EXPENSES, OR DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF THIS PUBLIC LICENSE OR USE OF THE LICENSED MATERIAL, EVEN IF THE LICENSOR HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH LOSSES, COSTS, EXPENSES, OR DAMAGES. WHERE A LIMITATION OF LIABILITY IS NOT ALLOWED IN FULL OR IN PART, THIS LIMITATION MAY NOT APPLY TO YOU.

c. The disclaimer of warranties and limitation of liability provided above shall be interpreted in a manner that, to the extent possible, most closely approximates an absolute disclaimer and waiver of all liability.

Section 6 -- Term and Termination.

a. This Public License applies for the term of the Copyright and Similar Rights licensed here. However, if You fail to comply with this Public License, then Your rights under this Public License terminate automatically.

b. Where Your right to use the Licensed Material has terminated under Section 6(a), it reinstates:

1. automatically as of the date the violation is cured, provided it is cured within 30 days of Your discovery of the violation; or

2. upon express reinstatement by the Licensor.

For the avoidance of doubt, this Section 6(b) does not affect any right the Licensor may have to seek remedies for Your violations of this Public License.

c. For the avoidance of doubt, the Licensor may also offer the Licensed Material under separate terms or conditions or stop distributing the Licensed Material at any time; however, doing so will not terminate this Public License.

d. Sections 1, 5, 6, 7, and 8 survive termination of this Public License.

Section 7 -- Other Terms and Conditions.

a. The Licensor shall not be bound by any additional or different terms or conditions communicated by You unless expressly agreed.

b. Any arrangements, understandings, or agreements regarding the Licensed Material not stated herein are separate from and independent of the terms and conditions of this Public License.

Section 8 -- Interpretation.

a. For the avoidance of doubt, this Public License does not, and shall not be interpreted to, reduce, limit, restrict, or impose conditions on any use of the Licensed Material that could lawfully be made without permission under this Public License.

b. To the extent possible, if any provision of this Public License is deemed unenforceable, it shall be automatically reformed to the minimum extent necessary to make it enforceable. If the provision cannot be reformed, it shall be severed from this Public License without affecting the enforceability of the remaining terms and conditions.

c. No term or condition of this Public License will be waived and no failure to comply consented to unless expressly agreed to by the Licensor.

d. Nothing in this Public License constitutes or may be interpreted as a limitation upon, or waiver of, any privileges and immunities that apply to the Licensor or You, including from the legal processes of any jurisdiction or authority.


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