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神经的工作原理与愈合

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How nerves carry signals, sense the world, and heal after injury — in plain English, with an in-depth section.

本页面由机器翻译,尚未经临床医生审核。英文版本为权威版本。

神经是身体的“电线”。它们在您的大脑与身体其余部分之间传递微小的电信号,指示肌肉运动,并将您感受到的触觉、温度、位置和疼痛等感觉传回大脑。当神经受到刺激、受压或切断时,这些信号就会受到干扰,您会感到针刺感、麻木、无力或疼痛。好消息是,神经是可以恢复的。它们的愈合速度较慢,但过程相对可预测,了解这一规律能让等待的过程少些担忧。本页以通俗易懂的语言解释神经的功能及其修复机制;对于感兴趣者,最后一部分将更深入地探讨其生物学原理。

神经是什么以及它的功能

可以将神经想象成一束绝缘电缆。每根“电缆”是一根单独的神经纤维,而整条神经(如腕部的正中神经)包含数千根这样的纤维,它们紧密聚集在一起,并被包裹在类似电缆束各层结构的保护性鞘膜中。

信号在两个方向上传导,因此神经主要承担三项功能:

  • 运动功能: 信号从大脑和脊髓传出至肌肉,告知肌肉何时收缩以及收缩的力度。这是实现抓握、捏取和运动的方式。
  • 感觉功能: 信号从皮肤、关节和肌腱传入,传递触觉、振动、温度、疼痛以及肢体在空间中的位置感(本体感觉)。
  • 自主神经功能: 这些是无需意识控制的自动背景信号,调节出汗和小血管的宽度(因此受伤的皮肤区域可能会感觉干燥或温度发生变化)。

每根纤维都有一个携带信号的生命核心(轴突),许多纤维被一层称为髓鞘的脂肪绝缘层包裹。就像电线的塑料涂层一样,这层绝缘体防止信号泄漏,并使信号能够更快地传导。

神经损伤会发生什么

神经出现问题主要有两种广泛的情况,症状可以告诉你属于哪一种。

神经受压或压迫。 当神经受到压迫时(例如腕管综合征中的正中神经,或肘部的“麻筋”神经),该节段神经的绝缘层和血液供应首先受到影响。信号在通过受压部位时会减慢或受阻。你会感到针刺感、麻木和笨拙,通常在夜间或特定姿势下加重,并且该神经支配的肌肉可能会随时间推移而无力。由于神经纤维本身通常保持完整,解除压迫后通常能实现良好的恢复。

神经断裂或撕裂。 切割伤、深切口或严重牵拉可能导致神经纤维本身断裂。此时连接在物理上被切断:损伤远端的神经部分与大脑和脊髓断开,导致该神经支配的所有区域感觉和运动功能丧失。 cleanly 断裂的神经通常需要进行手术修复,将神经缝合在一起,以便纤维有路径沿其再生。

症状出现的原因很简单:无法通过的信号就是无法到达的信号。阻断运动纤维会导致肌肉无力;阻断感觉纤维会导致皮肤麻木或刺痛;刺激纤维则会引起疼痛。

神经如何愈合

神经愈合确实非常缓慢,提前了解这一点有助于避免将恢复的缓慢节奏误认为是失败。

当神经纤维受损后,它们会从损伤点向外向皮肤和肌肉方向再生,速度大约为每天一毫米,每月约一英寸。 这一经验法则解释了许多情况:

  • 目标越远,等待时间越长。 高位损伤(例如靠近肘部)的神经需要再生很长的距离才能到达指尖,这可能需要数月时间。而靠近指尖的小切口则恢复得更快。
  • 感觉通常先于精细力量恢复。 当纤维到达皮肤时,您可能首先注意到模糊的意识,然后是刺痛感(当该区域被轻敲时,常出现嗡嗡声或电击感,这是纤维正在前进的良好迹象),接着是粗糙的触觉,最后是更精细的辨别力。力量和精细协调性往往最后恢复。
  • 早期、彻底的修复至关重要。 断裂的神经在及时且准确地修复时效果最佳,因为引导再生的身体支持细胞在受伤后的几个月内效果最好,并会随时间推移而减弱其作用。

有助于恢复的因素包括:通过提供的作业治疗练习保持关节灵活和肌肉健康,保护麻木的皮肤免受烧伤和割伤(因为它不会警告您伤害),不吸烟,以及保持耐心。通过指导性的感觉训练重新训练大脑以解释返回的信号,也是获得良好疗效的一部分。如果神经在预期的时间线上没有改善,值得进行复查,因为某些损伤需要手术才能为恢复提供最佳机会。

更深入的了解

本节将提供更详细、适合学生水平的解释,阐述上述所有内容背后的生物学原理。了解您的病情并不需要这部分内容,但如果您对神经连接的实际工作机制感到好奇,请继续阅读。

神经细胞及其膜

与您身体的其余部分一样,神经由细胞构成,具体为神经元。神经元具有细胞体(内含细胞核,即细胞的控制中心)、称为树突的短接收分支,以及一根将信号传出的长轴突,其长度有时可达一米以上。

包括神经元在内的每个细胞都被细胞膜包裹,其构成对后续内容至关重要。细胞膜是一种磷脂双分子层,由两层脂肪分子组成。每个磷脂分子都有一个亲水的“头部”和两个疏水的脂肪“尾部”;它们以尾部对尾部的方式排列成两层,头部朝向细胞内外的水性液体,而油性尾部则隐藏在中间。这层薄薄的脂肪膜是分隔内外的屏障,并且能够在其自身两侧维持电荷。下一节中描述的“通道”和“泵”仅仅是嵌在这层脂肪膜中的蛋白质门控结构。

布线:轴突、髓鞘与朗飞结

单个神经纤维以轴突为核心构建,轴突是神经细胞的一条长而线状的突起,负责传导电信号。许多轴突被髓鞘包裹,髓鞘是一种脂肪性绝缘鞘,了解髓鞘实际上是什么很有意义。一种支持细胞(在手臂周围神经中为施万细胞)将其自身的细胞膜围绕轴突一圈又一圈地缠绕,就像将保鲜膜绕在铅笔上数十次一样。由于该膜是磷脂双分子层(本质上是脂肪),每一层缠绕都会沉积另一层脂肪,众多堆叠的层形成厚厚的脂肪套筒。这个由包裹的膜构成的套筒就是绝缘体:髓鞘之所以主要是脂肪,正是因为它是由一层又一层的细胞膜堆叠而成。施万细胞缠绕的圈数越多,纤维的绝缘性越好,传导速度也越快。

然而,髓鞘并非连续不断。它以节段形式铺设,节段之间留有小的裸露间隙,称为朗飞结。电信号无法从绝缘部分泄漏,因此它实际上是从一个结跳跃到下一个结。这被称为跳跃式传导(源自拉丁语 saltare,意为跳跃),这也是有髓纤维速度如此之快的原因:从一个结跳跃到下一个结,信号传导速度可超过每秒 100 米,而无髓纤维的传导速度则低于每秒 10 米。这也解释了为何脱髓鞘疾病或损伤会如此显著地减慢传导速度。

信号如何传导

在静息状态下,轴突内部相对于外部带有轻微的负电荷:静息膜电位约为 −70 毫伏。这种电荷是通过将钠离子主要保持在细胞外、钾离子主要保持在细胞内来维持的。

当神经放电时,过程精确有序:

  1. 去极化。 电压门控通道迅速打开,钠离子快速流入。内部电位迅速变为正电位,峰值约为 +30 毫伏。这就是动作电位。
  2. 复极化。 钠通道关闭,电压门控通道打开,允许钾离子流出。内部电位向负值的静息状态恢复。
  3. 不应期(潜伏期)。 在此之后的一小段时间内,无论刺激有多强,该段膜都无法再次放电,因为通道正在重置。

这个不应期产生了一个精妙的效果:由于 advancing 信号后方紧邻的膜段暂时无法再次放电,动作电位只能向传播。这就是为什么神经信号沿纤维单向传导,而不是来回反弹的原因。

跨越间隙:突触与运动终板

神经纤维并不与其所控制的肌肉发生物理接触。在运动神经与肌肉相遇之处,存在一个特殊的连接结构,即神经肌肉接头,神经末梢与肌肉膜上一处增厚且呈折叠状的区域(称为运动终板)之间存在着一个微小的间隙(突触间隙)。

电信号无法直接跨越该间隙,因此需转换为化学信号。当动作电位到达神经末梢时,会触发一种称为乙酰胆碱的神经递质释放到间隙中。乙酰胆碱扩散并与其在运动终板上的受体结合,打开通道,使肌肉膜发生去极化。若该去极化达到阈值,便会引发肌肉内的动作电位,从而导致肌纤维收缩。随后,一种酶(乙酰胆碱酯酶)会迅速分解乙酰胆碱,使得每次神经冲动仅产生一次清晰的抽动,而非持续的收缩。这种化学接力过程是某些麻醉药物以及重症肌无力等疾病的作用靶点。

感知世界:感觉受体

感觉侧的工作方式相反:特化的神经末梢将物理刺激转化为神经信号。不同的受体针对不同的刺激:

  • 环层小体(Pacinian corpuscles) 位于皮肤深层,对深压和高频振动有反应。它们适应迅速,仅在刺激发生变化时发放信号,而非持续发放。
  • 迈斯纳小体(Meissner's corpuscles) 位于指尖和手掌皮肤表层下方,检测轻触和低频率颤动,对于感知纹理和处理小物体所需的精细辨别触觉至关重要。
  • 游离神经末梢(Free nerve endings) 是无被囊的裸露末梢,感知疼痛、温度和轻触。它们是皮肤中数量最多的末梢。
  • 肌梭(Muscle spindles) 位于肌肉内部,检测拉伸和长度,反馈关于位置和运动(本体感觉)的信息,即大脑无需注视即可知晓手部位置的原理。

你能感知到的不同性质(如针刺感、温暖、手机震动、手腕位置)主要取决于哪些受体在发放信号以及发放的频率。

神经损伤分级

外科医生根据损伤的深度对神经损伤进行分级,因为这决定了神经的恢复方式及是否可能恢复。目前联合使用两种分类系统。

较旧且较简单的Seddon系统分为三类:

  • 神经失用(Neurapraxia): 最轻微。神经纤维出现挫伤或局部髓鞘中断,但轴突保持完整。该部位传导阻滞,如同水管打结,但结构完好。一旦病因解除,通常可完全恢复且速度相对较快。
  • 轴突断裂(Axonotmesis): 轴突本身断裂,但周围的结缔组织管(神经内膜管)得以保留。损伤远端的纤维发生变性回缩,必须重新生长,因此恢复缓慢,但保留的管道为新生纤维提供了引导路径,预后通常良好。
  • 神经断裂(Neurotmesis): 最严重。神经及其支持结构完全断裂。无法自行恢复;需要手术修复,即使如此,恢复也不完全。

更详细的Sunderland系统将上述分类细分为五级,与Seddon系统的对应关系如下:

  • I级 = 神经失用(仅传导阻滞)。
  • II级 = 轴突断裂,但最内层管道(神经内膜)完整,再生前景最佳。
  • III级 = 内层管道也发生中断,导致再生纤维可能错位;恢复不完全。
  • IV级 = 仅外层鞘膜(神经外膜)保持完整;瘢痕块通常阻碍功能恢复,需手术干预。
  • V级 = 整个神经完全断裂,等同于Seddon系统的神经断裂,需要修复。

简而言之:断裂的层次越多,自然恢复越慢且越不完全,需要手术的可能性也越大。

华勒变性(Wallerian degeneration)与再生

当轴突被切断或撕裂时,其损伤远端部分与维持其存活的细胞断开连接。在接下来的几天里,该部分会通过一种有序的、程序化的过程——称为华勒变性——发生崩解:离断的轴突及其髓鞘被施万细胞(Schwann cells)和招募的免疫细胞(巨噬细胞)拆解并清除。

这不仅仅是拆除,更是准备。原本衬覆在旧纤维上的施万细胞存活下来,增殖并排列成称为布氏带(bands of Büngner)的空心柱状结构,沿着神经的原始路径延伸。这些柱状结构充当活性的支架管道:它们释放生长因子,并在物理上引导再生纤维向其靶目标回归。

从损伤部位开始,每个轴突的存活末端伸出生长锥,沿着其施万细胞管道以每天约一毫米的速度缓慢前进,最终到达皮肤或肌肉并重新建立连接(神经再支配)。这就是为什么早期、准确的清洁修复至关重要的原因:切断的管道需要对齐,以便纤维能够重新进入正确的通道,而且施万细胞在损伤后的数月内支持作用最强;从某种意义上说,它们有一个“最佳使用期限”。如果端端对位良好并及时修复,更多的纤维将能找到其归宿。

参见


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2. Patent and trademark rights are not licensed under this Public License.

3. To the extent possible, the Licensor waives any right to collect royalties from You for the exercise of the Licensed Rights, whether directly or through a collecting society under any voluntary or waivable statutory or compulsory licensing scheme. In all other cases the Licensor expressly reserves any right to collect such royalties, including when the Licensed Material is used other than for NonCommercial purposes.

Section 3 -- License Conditions.

Your exercise of the Licensed Rights is expressly made subject to the following conditions.

a. Attribution.

1. If You Share the Licensed Material (including in modified form), You must:

a. retain the following if it is supplied by the Licensor with the Licensed Material:

i. identification of the creator(s) of the Licensed Material and any others designated to receive attribution, in any reasonable manner requested by the Licensor (including by pseudonym if designated);

ii. a copyright notice;

iii. a notice that refers to this Public License;

iv. a notice that refers to the disclaimer of warranties;

v. a URI or hyperlink to the Licensed Material to the extent reasonably practicable;

b. indicate if You modified the Licensed Material and retain an indication of any previous modifications; and

c. indicate the Licensed Material is licensed under this Public License, and include the text of, or the URI or hyperlink to, this Public License.

2. You may satisfy the conditions in Section 3(a)(1) in any reasonable manner based on the medium, means, and context in which You Share the Licensed Material. For example, it may be reasonable to satisfy the conditions by providing a URI or hyperlink to a resource that includes the required information.

3. If requested by the Licensor, You must remove any of the information required by Section 3(a)(1)(A) to the extent reasonably practicable.

4. If You Share Adapted Material You produce, the Adapter's License You apply must not prevent recipients of the Adapted Material from complying with this Public License.

Section 4 -- Sui Generis Database Rights.

Where the Licensed Rights include Sui Generis Database Rights that apply to Your use of the Licensed Material:

a. for the avoidance of doubt, Section 2(a)(1) grants You the right to extract, reuse, reproduce, and Share all or a substantial portion of the contents of the database for NonCommercial purposes only;

b. if You include all or a substantial portion of the database contents in a database in which You have Sui Generis Database Rights, then the database in which You have Sui Generis Database Rights (but not its individual contents) is Adapted Material; and

c. You must comply with the conditions in Section 3(a) if You Share all or a substantial portion of the contents of the database.

For the avoidance of doubt, this Section 4 supplements and does not replace Your obligations under this Public License where the Licensed Rights include other Copyright and Similar Rights.

Section 5 -- Disclaimer of Warranties and Limitation of Liability.

a. UNLESS OTHERWISE SEPARATELY UNDERTAKEN BY THE LICENSOR, TO THE EXTENT POSSIBLE, THE LICENSOR OFFERS THE LICENSED MATERIAL AS-IS AND AS-AVAILABLE, AND MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE LICENSED MATERIAL, WHETHER EXPRESS, IMPLIED, STATUTORY, OR OTHER. THIS INCLUDES, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES OF TITLE, MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, ABSENCE OF LATENT OR OTHER DEFECTS, ACCURACY, OR THE PRESENCE OR ABSENCE OF ERRORS, WHETHER OR NOT KNOWN OR DISCOVERABLE. WHERE DISCLAIMERS OF WARRANTIES ARE NOT ALLOWED IN FULL OR IN PART, THIS DISCLAIMER MAY NOT APPLY TO YOU.

b. TO THE EXTENT POSSIBLE, IN NO EVENT WILL THE LICENSOR BE LIABLE TO YOU ON ANY LEGAL THEORY (INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, NEGLIGENCE) OR OTHERWISE FOR ANY DIRECT, SPECIAL, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE, EXEMPLARY, OR OTHER LOSSES, COSTS, EXPENSES, OR DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF THIS PUBLIC LICENSE OR USE OF THE LICENSED MATERIAL, EVEN IF THE LICENSOR HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH LOSSES, COSTS, EXPENSES, OR DAMAGES. WHERE A LIMITATION OF LIABILITY IS NOT ALLOWED IN FULL OR IN PART, THIS LIMITATION MAY NOT APPLY TO YOU.

c. The disclaimer of warranties and limitation of liability provided above shall be interpreted in a manner that, to the extent possible, most closely approximates an absolute disclaimer and waiver of all liability.

Section 6 -- Term and Termination.

a. This Public License applies for the term of the Copyright and Similar Rights licensed here. However, if You fail to comply with this Public License, then Your rights under this Public License terminate automatically.

b. Where Your right to use the Licensed Material has terminated under Section 6(a), it reinstates:

1. automatically as of the date the violation is cured, provided it is cured within 30 days of Your discovery of the violation; or

2. upon express reinstatement by the Licensor.

For the avoidance of doubt, this Section 6(b) does not affect any right the Licensor may have to seek remedies for Your violations of this Public License.

c. For the avoidance of doubt, the Licensor may also offer the Licensed Material under separate terms or conditions or stop distributing the Licensed Material at any time; however, doing so will not terminate this Public License.

d. Sections 1, 5, 6, 7, and 8 survive termination of this Public License.

Section 7 -- Other Terms and Conditions.

a. The Licensor shall not be bound by any additional or different terms or conditions communicated by You unless expressly agreed.

b. Any arrangements, understandings, or agreements regarding the Licensed Material not stated herein are separate from and independent of the terms and conditions of this Public License.

Section 8 -- Interpretation.

a. For the avoidance of doubt, this Public License does not, and shall not be interpreted to, reduce, limit, restrict, or impose conditions on any use of the Licensed Material that could lawfully be made without permission under this Public License.

b. To the extent possible, if any provision of this Public License is deemed unenforceable, it shall be automatically reformed to the minimum extent necessary to make it enforceable. If the provision cannot be reformed, it shall be severed from this Public License without affecting the enforceability of the remaining terms and conditions.

c. No term or condition of this Public License will be waived and no failure to comply consented to unless expressly agreed to by the Licensor.

d. Nothing in this Public License constitutes or may be interpreted as a limitation upon, or waiver of, any privileges and immunities that apply to the Licensor or You, including from the legal processes of any jurisdiction or authority.


Creative Commons is not a party to its public licenses. Notwithstanding, Creative Commons may elect to apply one of its public licenses to material it publishes and in those instances will be considered the “Licensor.” The text of the Creative Commons public licenses is dedicated to the public domain under the CC0 Public Domain Dedication. Except for the limited purpose of indicating that material is shared under a Creative Commons public license or as otherwise permitted by the Creative Commons policies published at creativecommons.org/policies, Creative Commons does not authorize the use of the trademark "Creative Commons" or any other trademark or logo of Creative Commons without its prior written consent including, without limitation, in connection with any unauthorized modifications to any of its public licenses or any other arrangements, understandings, or agreements concerning use of licensed material. For the avoidance of doubt, this paragraph does not form part of the public licenses.

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