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神经如何工作与修复

How nerves carry signals, sense the world, and heal after injury — in plain English, with an in-depth section.

Illustration: 神经如何工作与修复

本页面由机器翻译,尚未经临床医生审核。英文版本为权威版本。

神经是人体的“线路”。它们在您的大脑与身体其余部分之间传递微小的电信号,指示肌肉运动,并回传您所感知到的感觉:触觉、温度、位置感和疼痛。当神经受到刺激、受压或被切断时,这些信号会被干扰,您会将其感知为针刺感、麻木、无力或疼痛。好消息是,神经可以恢复。它们愈合缓慢且方式相当可预测,理解这一规律会让等待过程变得不那么令人担忧。本页以通俗易懂的语言解释神经的功能及其修复方式;对于希望深入了解的读者,最后一部分将更深入地探讨其生物学机制。

神经是什么及其功能

可以将神经想象成一束绝缘电缆。每根“电缆”都是一根神经纤维,而整条神经(例如手腕处的正中神经)包含数千根紧密排列的神经纤维,并包裹在保护性鞘膜中,结构类似于电缆束的分层。

信号在两个方向上传输,因此神经主要执行三项功能:

  • 运动功能: 信号从大脑和脊髓向外传输至肌肉,指示其收缩的时机和力度。这是您进行抓握、捏取和运动的基础。
  • 感觉功能: 信号从皮肤、关节和肌腱向内传输,传递触觉、振动觉、温度觉、痛觉以及肢体在空间中的位置感。
  • 自主神经功能: 您无需意识到的自动背景信号,控制出汗和小血管管径等生理过程(这就是为什么受伤的皮肤区域可能会感觉干燥或出现温度变化)。

每根神经纤维都有一个有生命的内核(轴突),负责传导信号,许多纤维还包裹着一层称为髓鞘的脂肪绝缘层。就像电线上的塑料涂层一样,这层绝缘层阻止信号泄漏,并使其传输速度大大加快。

神经损伤时会发生什么

神经受损通常有两种主要方式,症状可提示具体类型。

神经受压或受挤压。 当神经受到压迫(例如腕管综合征中的正中神经,或肘部的“麻筋”神经)时,该节段的神经绝缘层和血供首先受损。信号经过受压部位时传导减慢或受阻。患者会感到针刺感、麻木和笨拙,症状常在夜间或特定体位下加重,且由该神经支配的肌肉可能随时间推移而逐渐无力。由于神经本身通常保持完整,解除压迫后往往能获得良好恢复。

神经切断或撕裂。 裂伤、深部切割伤或严重牵拉可导致神经纤维本身断裂。此时连接在物理上中断:损伤远端的神经与大脑和脊髓失去联系,导致该神经所支配的所有区域感觉和运动功能丧失。整齐切断的神经通常需要通过手术修复,将断端缝合,以便神经纤维沿此路径重新生长。

症状出现的根本原因很简单:无法传导的信号即无法到达。运动纤维受阻,肌肉便会无力;感觉纤维受阻,皮肤便会麻木或产生刺痛感;纤维受到刺激,则会引起疼痛。

神经如何愈合

神经愈合确实非常缓慢,提前了解这一点有助于您理解恢复过程,以免将缓慢的进展视为失败。

当神经纤维受损后,它们会从损伤点向外向皮肤和肌肉方向再生,速度大约为每天一毫米,每月约一英寸。 这一经验法则解释了许多现象:

  • 目标距离越远,等待时间越长。 高位损伤的神经(例如靠近肘部)需要长距离向下再生才能到达指尖,这可能需要好几个月。而指尖附近的小切口则恢复得更快。
  • 感觉通常先于精细力量恢复。 当纤维到达皮肤时,您可能会先注意到模糊的意识,然后是刺痛感(通常在轻拍该区域时出现嗡嗡的麻颤感或触电感,这是纤维正在推进的良好迹象),接着是粗糙触觉,最后才是更精细的辨别能力。力量和精细协调往往最后恢复。
  • 早期、干净的修复至关重要。 断裂的神经若能及时且准确地修复,效果最佳,因为引导再生的身体支持细胞在损伤后的头几个月内效果最好,并随时间推移逐渐失去部分作用。

有助于恢复的措施包括:通过您获得的手部治疗练习保持关节灵活和肌肉健康;保护麻木的皮肤免受烧伤和割伤(它不会向您发出伤害警告);不吸烟;以及保持耐心。通过引导性的感觉练习重新训练大脑以解读返回的信号,也是获得良好结果的一部分。如果本应按时间表改善的神经没有改善,值得进行复查,因为某些损伤需要手术才能为恢复提供最佳机会。

深入探讨

Advanced reading: the deeper science (optional)

本节将提供更详细、面向学生水平的解释,阐述上述所有内容背后的生物学原理。理解您的病情并不需要这部分内容,但如果您对神经传导的实际工作机制感到好奇,请继续阅读。

神经细胞及其细胞膜

细胞膜示意图:磷脂双分子层,其中嵌有蛋白质。
细胞膜是磷脂双分子层——由双层脂肪分子构成(亲水头部朝外,疏水尾部朝内),其上镶嵌有蛋白质通道和泵。 Wikimedia Commons (LadyofHats), public domain

与身体的其他部分一样,神经由细胞构成,具体而言是神经元。神经元具有细胞体(内含细胞核,即细胞的控制中心)、短小的接收分支称为树突,以及一条长的轴突,用于传导信号,其长度有时可达近一米。

每个细胞,包括神经元在内,都被一层细胞膜包裹,其组成对后续内容至关重要。该膜为磷脂双分子层,即由两层脂肪分子构成的双层结构。每个磷脂分子具有亲水的“头部”和两条疏水的脂肪“尾部”;它们尾部相对排列成两层,头部朝向细胞内外含水分的液体,而油性尾部则嵌在中间。这层薄薄的脂质薄膜是分隔内外的屏障,且其两侧可维持电荷。下一节中描述的“通道”和“泵”仅仅是嵌在这层脂质膜中的蛋白质门控结构。

布线:轴突、髓鞘与郎飞结

显示施万细胞、髓鞘和郎飞结的有髓神经纤维。
有髓神经纤维:施万细胞将轴突包裹于髓鞘中,其间存在裸露的间隙(郎飞结),神经信号在郎飞结之间跳跃传导。 OpenStax, Anatomy & Physiology, CC BY 4.0

单根神经纤维以轴突为核心构建,轴突是神经细胞的一种细长突起,负责传导电信号。许多轴突被髓鞘包裹,髓鞘是一种脂质绝缘鞘。了解髓鞘的本质很有价值。支持细胞(在手臂周围神经中为施万细胞)将其自身的细胞膜反复缠绕在轴突周围,一圈又一圈,如同将保鲜膜在铅笔上缠绕数十次。由于该膜是磷脂双分子层(本质上是脂肪),每一次缠绕都会沉积另一层脂肪,众多堆叠的层最终形成厚厚的脂质袖套。这层包裹起来的膜就是绝缘体:髓鞘主要由脂肪组成,正是因为它由层层细胞膜构成。施万细胞缠绕的圈数越多,绝缘效果越好,纤维传导速度越快。

然而,髓鞘并非连续的。它以节段形式沉积,节段之间存在微小的裸露间隙,称为郎飞结。电信号无法通过绝缘段泄漏,因此实际上跳跃从一个节点到下一个节点。这被称为跳跃式传导(源自拉丁语 saltare,意为跳跃),这也是有髓纤维如此快速的原因:节点间的跳跃可以以远超每秒100米的速度传导信号,而裸露的无髓纤维则低于每秒10米。这也是为什么脱髓鞘的疾病或损伤会如此显著地减慢传导速度。

信号如何传导

动作电位图谱,显示钠通道和钾通道的活动。
动作电位:钠离子内流使膜电位上升(去极化),随后钾离子外流使其恢复(复极化)。 OpenStax, Anatomy & Physiology, CC BY 4.0

在静息状态下,轴突内部相对于外部带有轻微的负电荷:即静息膜电位,约为 −70 毫伏。这种电荷通过使钠离子主要保留在细胞外、钾离子主要保留在细胞内来维持。

当神经发放冲动时,其过程精确有序:

  1. 去极化。 电压门控钠通道迅速打开,钠离子涌入内部。内部电位迅速转为正电位,峰值约为 +30 毫伏。这就是动作电位。
  2. 复极化。 钠通道关闭,电压门控钾通道打开,允许钾离子流出外部。内部电位回归至其负值的静息水平。
  3. 不应期(潜伏期)。 在此后短暂的时间内,无论刺激多强,该段膜都无法再次发放冲动,因为通道正在重置。

该不应期起到一种精妙的作用:由于紧随信号前进方向之后的那段膜暂时无法再次发放,动作电位只能向前方传导。这就是神经信号沿神经纤维单向运行,而非来回反弹的原因。

跨越间隙:突触与运动终板

神经纤维并不与其所支配的肌肉发生物理接触。在运动神经与肌肉相遇处,存在一个特化的连接结构,即神经肌肉接头,其神经末梢与肌肉膜上一个增厚且折叠的区域——称为运动终板——之间,存在一个微小的间隙(突触间隙)。

电信号无法直接跨越该间隙,因此被转化为化学信号。当动作电位到达神经末梢时,会触发一种名为乙酰胆碱的神经递质释放至间隙中。乙酰胆碱扩散穿过间隙,并与运动终板上的受体结合,从而打开离子通道,使肌肉膜发生去极化。若该去极化达到阈值,便会引发肌肉内的动作电位,导致肌纤维收缩。随后,一种酶(乙酰胆碱酯酶)迅速分解乙酰胆碱,使得每次神经冲动仅产生一次干脆利落的抽动,而非拖延的收缩。这一化学中继过程是某些麻醉药物以及重症肌无力等疾病的靶点。

感知世界:感觉受体

感觉侧的工作是逆向的:特化的末梢将物理刺激转化为神经信号。不同的受体针对不同的刺激进行调谐:

  • 帕西尼小体位于皮肤深层,对深部压力和高频振动作出反应。它们快速适应,在刺激发生变化的瞬间发放冲动,而非持续发放。
  • 迈斯纳小体位于指尖和手掌皮肤表面之下,检测轻触和低频颤动,是用于感知纹理和操控小物体的精细辨别性触觉的核心。
  • 游离神经末梢是裸露的、无被囊的末梢,能感知疼痛、温度和轻触。它们是皮肤中数量最多的末梢。
  • 肌梭位于肌肉内部,检测拉伸和长度,反馈关于位置和运动(本体感觉)的信息,即大脑无需视觉即可知晓手部位置的方式。

你能感知的不同性质(针刺感、温暖、手机震动、手腕的位置)在很大程度上取决于这些受体中哪些在发放冲动以及发放速度有多快。

神经损伤分级

外科医生根据损伤的深度对神经损伤进行分级,因为这决定了神经将如何恢复以及是否能够恢复。临床上同时使用两种分类系统。

较旧且较简单的Seddon系统包含三个类别:

  • 神经失用(Neurapraxia): 最轻微。纤维挫伤或局部绝缘层中断,但轴突保持完整。传导在该部位受阻,如同被折弯的水管,但结构完好。一旦去除病因,恢复通常完全且相对迅速。
  • 轴索断裂(Axonotmesis): 轴突本身断裂,但周围的结缔组织管存活。损伤远端的纤维发生逆行变性并需重新生长,因此恢复缓慢,但保留的管状结构为新生的纤维提供了生长路径,预后通常良好。
  • 神经断裂(Neurotmesis): 最严重。包括支持框架在内的神经完全断裂。其无法自行恢复;需要手术修复,且即使经过手术,恢复也不完全。

更详细的Sunderland系统将其分为五级,与Seddon系统的对应关系如下:

  • 1级 = 神经失用(仅传导阻滞)。
  • 2级 = 轴索断裂且最内层管(内神经膜)完整,再生前景最佳。
  • 3级 = 内层管也中断,因此再生的纤维可能方向错误;恢复为部分性。
  • 4级 = 仅外层鞘(外神经膜)保持完整;瘢痕阻滞通常导致无手术则无法获得功能性恢复。
  • 5级 = 整条神经完全断裂,等同于Seddon系统的神经断裂,需要修复。

简而言之:撕裂的层次越多,自然恢复越慢且越不完全,需要手术的可能性越大。

瓦勒氏变性(Wallerian degeneration)与再生长

当轴突被切断或撕裂时,损伤远端的轴突部分便与维持其存活的细胞失去了联系。在接下来的几天内,该部分会通过一种有序的程序化过程分解,这一过程被称为瓦勒氏变性:孤立的轴突及其髓鞘被施万细胞和招募的免疫细胞(巨噬细胞)拆解并清除。

这不仅仅是破坏,更是准备。衬覆在旧神经纤维上的施万细胞存活下来,进行增殖,并排列成中空的柱状结构,称为Büngner带,沿着神经原有的路径延伸。这些柱状结构充当着有生命的支架管:它们释放生长因子,并在物理上引导再生的纤维向其靶组织返回。

从损伤部位开始,每个轴突的存活末端会发出一个生长锥,沿着其施万细胞管以大约每天一毫米的速度爬行,最终到达皮肤或肌肉并重新连接(再神经化)。这就是为什么早期、精确且干净的修复至关重要:切断的管腔需要对齐,以便纤维重新进入正确的通道;而且施万细胞在损伤后不久的数月内支持作用最强;实际上,它们有一个“最佳使用期限”。如果将断端良好地对齐并及时到达,就会有更多的纤维找到回家的路。

参见


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2. Exceptions and Limitations. For the avoidance of doubt, where Exceptions and Limitations apply to Your use, this Public License does not apply, and You do not need to comply with its terms and conditions.

3. Term. The term of this Public License is specified in Section 6(a).

4. Media and formats; technical modifications allowed. The Licensor authorizes You to exercise the Licensed Rights in all media and formats whether now known or hereafter created, and to make technical modifications necessary to do so. The Licensor waives and/or agrees not to assert any right or authority to forbid You from making technical modifications necessary to exercise the Licensed Rights, including technical modifications necessary to circumvent Effective Technological Measures. For purposes of this Public License, simply making modifications authorized by this Section 2(a) (4) never produces Adapted Material.

5. Downstream recipients.

a. Offer from the Licensor -- Licensed Material. Every recipient of the Licensed Material automatically receives an offer from the Licensor to exercise the Licensed Rights under the terms and conditions of this Public License.

b. No downstream restrictions. You may not offer or impose any additional or different terms or conditions on, or apply any Effective Technological Measures to, the Licensed Material if doing so restricts exercise of the Licensed Rights by any recipient of the Licensed Material.

6. No endorsement. Nothing in this Public License constitutes or may be construed as permission to assert or imply that You are, or that Your use of the Licensed Material is, connected with, or sponsored, endorsed, or granted official status by, the Licensor or others designated to receive attribution as provided in Section 3(a)(1)(A)(i).

b. Other rights.

1. Moral rights, such as the right of integrity, are not licensed under this Public License, nor are publicity, privacy, and/or other similar personality rights; however, to the extent possible, the Licensor waives and/or agrees not to assert any such rights held by the Licensor to the limited extent necessary to allow You to exercise the Licensed Rights, but not otherwise.

2. Patent and trademark rights are not licensed under this Public License.

3. To the extent possible, the Licensor waives any right to collect royalties from You for the exercise of the Licensed Rights, whether directly or through a collecting society under any voluntary or waivable statutory or compulsory licensing scheme. In all other cases the Licensor expressly reserves any right to collect such royalties, including when the Licensed Material is used other than for NonCommercial purposes.

Section 3 -- License Conditions.

Your exercise of the Licensed Rights is expressly made subject to the following conditions.

a. Attribution.

1. If You Share the Licensed Material (including in modified form), You must:

a. retain the following if it is supplied by the Licensor with the Licensed Material:

i. identification of the creator(s) of the Licensed Material and any others designated to receive attribution, in any reasonable manner requested by the Licensor (including by pseudonym if designated);

ii. a copyright notice;

iii. a notice that refers to this Public License;

iv. a notice that refers to the disclaimer of warranties;

v. a URI or hyperlink to the Licensed Material to the extent reasonably practicable;

b. indicate if You modified the Licensed Material and retain an indication of any previous modifications; and

c. indicate the Licensed Material is licensed under this Public License, and include the text of, or the URI or hyperlink to, this Public License.

2. You may satisfy the conditions in Section 3(a)(1) in any reasonable manner based on the medium, means, and context in which You Share the Licensed Material. For example, it may be reasonable to satisfy the conditions by providing a URI or hyperlink to a resource that includes the required information.

3. If requested by the Licensor, You must remove any of the information required by Section 3(a)(1)(A) to the extent reasonably practicable.

4. If You Share Adapted Material You produce, the Adapter's License You apply must not prevent recipients of the Adapted Material from complying with this Public License.

Section 4 -- Sui Generis Database Rights.

Where the Licensed Rights include Sui Generis Database Rights that apply to Your use of the Licensed Material:

a. for the avoidance of doubt, Section 2(a)(1) grants You the right to extract, reuse, reproduce, and Share all or a substantial portion of the contents of the database for NonCommercial purposes only;

b. if You include all or a substantial portion of the database contents in a database in which You have Sui Generis Database Rights, then the database in which You have Sui Generis Database Rights (but not its individual contents) is Adapted Material; and

c. You must comply with the conditions in Section 3(a) if You Share all or a substantial portion of the contents of the database.

For the avoidance of doubt, this Section 4 supplements and does not replace Your obligations under this Public License where the Licensed Rights include other Copyright and Similar Rights.

Section 5 -- Disclaimer of Warranties and Limitation of Liability.

a. UNLESS OTHERWISE SEPARATELY UNDERTAKEN BY THE LICENSOR, TO THE EXTENT POSSIBLE, THE LICENSOR OFFERS THE LICENSED MATERIAL AS-IS AND AS-AVAILABLE, AND MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE LICENSED MATERIAL, WHETHER EXPRESS, IMPLIED, STATUTORY, OR OTHER. THIS INCLUDES, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES OF TITLE, MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, ABSENCE OF LATENT OR OTHER DEFECTS, ACCURACY, OR THE PRESENCE OR ABSENCE OF ERRORS, WHETHER OR NOT KNOWN OR DISCOVERABLE. WHERE DISCLAIMERS OF WARRANTIES ARE NOT ALLOWED IN FULL OR IN PART, THIS DISCLAIMER MAY NOT APPLY TO YOU.

b. TO THE EXTENT POSSIBLE, IN NO EVENT WILL THE LICENSOR BE LIABLE TO YOU ON ANY LEGAL THEORY (INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, NEGLIGENCE) OR OTHERWISE FOR ANY DIRECT, SPECIAL, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE, EXEMPLARY, OR OTHER LOSSES, COSTS, EXPENSES, OR DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF THIS PUBLIC LICENSE OR USE OF THE LICENSED MATERIAL, EVEN IF THE LICENSOR HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH LOSSES, COSTS, EXPENSES, OR DAMAGES. WHERE A LIMITATION OF LIABILITY IS NOT ALLOWED IN FULL OR IN PART, THIS LIMITATION MAY NOT APPLY TO YOU.

c. The disclaimer of warranties and limitation of liability provided above shall be interpreted in a manner that, to the extent possible, most closely approximates an absolute disclaimer and waiver of all liability.

Section 6 -- Term and Termination.

a. This Public License applies for the term of the Copyright and Similar Rights licensed here. However, if You fail to comply with this Public License, then Your rights under this Public License terminate automatically.

b. Where Your right to use the Licensed Material has terminated under Section 6(a), it reinstates:

1. automatically as of the date the violation is cured, provided it is cured within 30 days of Your discovery of the violation; or

2. upon express reinstatement by the Licensor.

For the avoidance of doubt, this Section 6(b) does not affect any right the Licensor may have to seek remedies for Your violations of this Public License.

c. For the avoidance of doubt, the Licensor may also offer the Licensed Material under separate terms or conditions or stop distributing the Licensed Material at any time; however, doing so will not terminate this Public License.

d. Sections 1, 5, 6, 7, and 8 survive termination of this Public License.

Section 7 -- Other Terms and Conditions.

a. The Licensor shall not be bound by any additional or different terms or conditions communicated by You unless expressly agreed.

b. Any arrangements, understandings, or agreements regarding the Licensed Material not stated herein are separate from and independent of the terms and conditions of this Public License.

Section 8 -- Interpretation.

a. For the avoidance of doubt, this Public License does not, and shall not be interpreted to, reduce, limit, restrict, or impose conditions on any use of the Licensed Material that could lawfully be made without permission under this Public License.

b. To the extent possible, if any provision of this Public License is deemed unenforceable, it shall be automatically reformed to the minimum extent necessary to make it enforceable. If the provision cannot be reformed, it shall be severed from this Public License without affecting the enforceability of the remaining terms and conditions.

c. No term or condition of this Public License will be waived and no failure to comply consented to unless expressly agreed to by the Licensor.

d. Nothing in this Public License constitutes or may be interpreted as a limitation upon, or waiver of, any privileges and immunities that apply to the Licensor or You, including from the legal processes of any jurisdiction or authority.


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