Skip to content

Patients › Hand

甲沟炎(指甲旁感染)

Updated Oct 2026
Illustration: 甲沟炎(指甲旁感染)

本页面由机器翻译,尚未经临床医生审核。英文版本为权威版本。

您的感受

甲沟炎是指指甲旁边皮肤皱襞(甲皱襞)的感染或炎症。它可能来得很快,也可能慢慢形成,这两种类型的感受有所不同。

急性型通常在倒刺、咬指甲或指甲旁皮肤的轻微损伤后开始。在一两天内,甲皱襞会出现压痛、肿胀和发红,脓液可能积聚在该皱襞下方。疼痛尖锐并呈搏动性,正好位于指甲边缘,而不是在手指更上方的位置。按压到指尖的日常活动会变得困难:捡硬币、打字、扣纽扣或握住水壶。

慢性型在六周或更长时间内逐渐形成。肿胀和发红程度较轻,但甲皱襞持续疼痛、浮肿。皮肤皱襞可能与指甲分离,指甲本身也可能出现脊状突起、沟槽或颜色改变。双手长时间潮湿后往往会加重,因此洗碗、淋浴或一整天的潮湿工作都可能诱发。反复从事湿作业、频繁洗手或美甲造成的甲小皮损伤都可能使其持续存在。如果不予治疗,疼痛性发作会反复出现。

如果发红、肿胀和疼痛沿手指向上蔓延,或者您出现发烧,请当天前往急诊科。无需转诊。

实际发生了什么

您的指甲位于一个紧贴的皮肤囊袋中。在指甲根部和两侧环绕指甲的皮肤皱襞就像一个密封垫,把指甲密封在手指上,阻止水、污垢和细菌进入下方各层。甲沟炎就是这一密封被破坏后发生的情况。

在急性型中,细菌通过倒刺、咬伤或指甲旁的小伤口侵入。身体会输送液体和抗感染细胞,脓液在这个封闭的囊袋中积聚。由于囊袋几乎无法扩张,正是这种压力导致了指甲边缘那种尖锐的搏动性疼痛。

慢性型则不同。它主要不是感染。它始于甲小皮(指甲根部的那一小道密封)因湿作业、频繁洗手、美甲或刺激性物质而受损。一旦这道密封消失,水和刺激物就会渗入甲皱襞,使甲皱襞发炎。肿胀的甲皱襞无法重新贴回指甲上,因此会一直翘起并积存水分,细菌便在这个潮湿的间隙中定居。在那里常见的酵母菌与其说是病因,不如说只是“搭便车”的。持续的刺激还会干扰甲小皮下方负责生长指甲的组织层,这就是指甲出现脊状突起和沟槽的原因。每次发作都会阻碍密封修复,因此问题会自我维持下去。

如果对脓液置之不理,它可能会在指甲下方蔓延,或绕到手指的另一侧。

我们如何处理

Mater Private Hospital Rockhampton 的上肢外科医生 Kieran Hirpara 医生会从适合您病情的最微创方案入手。患者通常由全科医生(GP)转诊至我们的诊所;如果理疗师建议您就诊,您仍需获得全科医生的转诊,才有资格享受 Medicare 报销。我们会评估您的手部,检查甲皱襞,并仅在需要时安排影像学检查。

对于慢性型,首先是自我护理。保护甲皱襞比任何药膏都更重要:保持双手干燥,从事湿作业时戴手套,并停止抠或剪甲小皮。我们可能会开具类固醇药膏或软膏,供您涂抹在甲皱襞上,以缓解炎症。对于这种类型,涂抹于甲皱襞的药膏比口服药片效果更好。请坚持数周,即使皮肤已经好转,也要继续保持干燥和保护的习惯,因为密封需要时间修复。

对于有脓液的急性型,我们可能会开具抗生素药片,有时还会配合在家中用温盐水浸泡。温热有助于少量积脓自行引流。如果脓液已在甲皱襞下方积聚,通常需要将其释放,而不是仅靠抗生素。及早治疗可以在几天内使病情缓解,而无需拔除任何指甲。

如果慢性型在充分尝试这些措施后仍未缓解,就会考虑手术。手术会切除指甲根部一块新月形的增厚、发炎的皮肤皱襞,使甲皱襞能够重新愈合贴回指甲上并再次形成密封。如果指甲本身已出现脊状突起或不规则,同时拔除甲板可以改善效果。我们会与您讨论手术是否适合您的手指,并共同做出决定。

预期情况

急性型在及早治疗时通常能顺利消退。许多人无需拔除任何指甲即可治愈。一旦脓液释放、皮肤皱襞得以愈合,疼痛就会减轻,手指会在数天到数周内恢复正常。

慢性型需要更长时间。这是一种时好时坏的疾病,在湿作业后发作,在甲皱襞得到保护时缓解。通过坚持护理(保持双手干燥、保护甲小皮完好比任何药膏都更重要),皮肤皱襞与指甲之间的间隙会在6至8周内填满,密封会自行修复。有些人需要坚持这一习惯数个月,甲皱襞才会彻底恢复。如果置之不理,疼痛性发作会反复出现,指甲可能会增厚,并出现持久的脊状突起或沟槽。

慢性型的手术会切除增厚的甲皱襞,使其能够重新愈合贴回指甲上。指甲仍保持光滑的手指,通常仅做甲皱襞手术即可愈合。如果指甲已出现脊状突起或不规则,同时拔除甲板可以提高问题不再复发的机会。对于没有其他健康问题的人,此类手术后通常不需要使用抗生素。

在此过程中,有几点值得了解。手部感染可能引起难以处理的并发症,因此不要忽视一根没有好转的手指。如果您的症状没有缓解、在数周内逐渐加重、使您在夜间痛醒,或使您无法工作或使用手部,请就诊于您的全科医生,或要求专科医生评估。

何时就医

大多数甲皱襞感染经及早护理都能消退,但有些迹象意味着您不应等待。如果您的手指变得发热、发红、肿胀并疼痛,尤其是伴有发烧,或者脓液正沿手指向上扩散,请当天前往急诊科。无需转诊。手部感染一旦发展起来,可能引起难以处理的并发症,因此当天就医很重要。

如果疼痛和肿胀已持续六周或更长时间,或者尽管保持干燥和保护,甲皱襞在湿作业后仍反复发作,请咨询您的全科医生。如果皮肤皱襞一直翘起、浮肿,指甲出现脊状突起或沟槽,或者指甲问题对药膏没有反应,请要求专科医生评估。经过适当治疗仍不能缓解的甲皱襞需要进一步检查,因为其他病因有时会被误认为是这种疾病。

深入探讨

Advanced reading: the deeper science (optional)

本节内容超出了您做出自身治疗决策所需的深度。甲沟炎值得额外阅读,因为一个术语涵盖了两种行为不同、对相反治疗有反应且常被混淆的疾病,且慢性型的手术解决方案比大多数人预期的更古老、更简单且证据支持更充分。

两种情况,一个名称

急性甲沟炎是甲皱襞的细菌感染,最常见的病原体是金黄色葡萄球菌,通常在指甲与皮肤之间的密封屏障被破坏后的24至48小时内发生 [1]。其表现为发红、发热、张力增高且疼痛程度与体征不成比例,并伴有脓液形成。

慢性甲沟炎,按惯例指病程超过六周,其主要性质并非感染。它是由反复接触潮湿环境和刺激物引起的甲皱襞炎症性皮炎,其中角质层密封的丧失允许更多刺激物进入,从而产生自我维持的循环 [2]。念珠菌常从这些甲皱襞中培养出,这正是该病症长期被视为真菌感染的原因,但其存在更应被理解为对已受损甲皱襞的定植,而非病因。

重新定义慢性型的试验

确立这一结论的证据是一项随机、双盲、双模拟试验,比较了局部糖皮质激素(甲泼尼龙阿奇酸酯)与两种全身性抗真菌药。在接受局部糖皮质激素治疗的48个指甲中,41个得到改善或治愈;而在特比萘芬组中,57个中有30个得到改善或治愈,在伊曲康唑组中,64个中有29个得到改善或治愈,激素组具有统计学显著优势 [3]。

同一项试验包含了更具决定性的观察结果。Candida(念珠菌)的存在与疾病活动性并非严格相关,且在基线时携带该菌的18名患者中,清除Candida仅与其中2名患者的临床治愈相关 [3]。

这一结果很难与真菌病因相调和,却很容易与炎症性病因相调和:酵母菌只是受损褶皱中的乘客,而非驱动者。它将该疾病重新定义为屏障问题:甲小皮是密封层,湿性工作破坏它,褶皱肿胀,肿胀的褶皱无法重新密封,从而让微生物定植于间隙。治疗定植菌并未触及发病机制。

其实际推论并不引人注目,且是患者最常忽略的部分:最有效的单一干预措施是保持手部干燥并远离刺激物。在此方面,手套的效果优于处方药。

急性甲沟炎:引流及干预程度的把握

一旦形成脓液,单用抗生素无法清除,必须引流脓液积聚 [1]。 传统方法是将甲皱襞从甲板上掀起以减压脓肿,并切除脓液在其下方蔓延部位的指甲。

一种保留指甲的替代方法是瑞士卷技术,即不切开或切除甲皱襞,而是将其抬起并卷绕在缝线上,固定数天后展开 [4]。其吸引力在于,它能在不牺牲甲板或甲皱襞的情况下引流已扩散至整个甲皱襞的脓液,这在替代方案需要广泛切开时尤为重要。

两种方法的共同原则是,切口应仅对甲皱襞进行减压,而不应进入指腹,因为指腹是一个独立的腔室,打开它会将简单的甲沟炎转变为更棘手的伤口。

甲上皮袋形缝合术

对于未缓解的慢性甲沟炎,所采用的手术方案始创于1976年,且自那时以来基本未作更改。

Keyser和Eaton的手术方案切除增厚近端甲皱襞的月牙形组织,在去除炎性组织的同时避免损伤生发基质,并将缺损处保持开放以通过收缩愈合,从而使甲皱襞重新回缩覆盖于甲板上,恢复疾病所破坏的密封结构 [5]。

解剖结构决定了切缘的关键性。角质层(甲小皮)下方存在一个两至三毫米深的生发基质盲囊,负责产生甲板,其上的皮下层则决定甲板的表面形态。若该层因感染、压力或创伤而受损,甲板的生成将按比例发生紊乱:短暂发作导致横向脊纹,长期病变则导致慢性甲沟炎所特有的纵向沟槽和增厚 [5]。

因此,保护生发基质是防止永久性甲畸形的关键,而保持伤口开放则是产生使甲皱襞重新密封的收缩力的原因;若将伤口闭合,则违背了手术目的。

消除复发的关键改进

最有价值的结局数据来自一项具有明确内部对照的小型系列研究。据报告,伴有指甲不规则的手指仅行袋形缝合术(marsupialisation)后,少数病例出现复发;而随后一组伴有指甲不规则的手指,在袋形缝合术外加拔除甲板治疗后,未出现复发;无指甲不规则的手指仅行袋形缝合术即愈合 [6]。

该系列研究样本量小且为顺序设计而非随机对照,因此这仅是一个信号而非确证——且我们未能获取全文,故上述数据系基于二手文献的总结,而非直接摘自原文。但它提供了一个具体的术中原则:指甲不规则或呈脊状,表明病变已累及下方的甲母质,在该手指中应同时拔除甲板。外观正常的指甲可予以保留。

对于如此常见的疾病而言,这是一个异常具有可操作性的发现,这也是在决定手术方案前,不仅需检查甲皱襞,还需检查甲板状态的原因。

参考文献

[1] Ritting AW, O'Malley MP, Rodner CM. 急性甲沟炎。J Hand Surg Am. 2012;37(5):1068-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhsa.2011.11.021

[2] Shafritz AB, Coppage JM. 手部急性和慢性甲沟炎。J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2014;22(3):165-74. https://doi.org/10.5435/JAAOS-22-03-165

[3] Tosti A, Piraccini BM, Ghetti E, Colombo MD. 外用皮质类固醇与全身抗真菌药物在治疗慢性甲沟炎中的比较:一项开放性、随机双盲双模拟研究。J Am Acad Dermatol. 2002;47(1):73-6. https://doi.org/10.1067/mjd.2002.122191

[4] Pabari A, Iyer S, Khoo CTK. 瑞士卷技术治疗甲沟炎。Tech Hand Up Extrem Surg. 2011;15(2):75-7. https://doi.org/10.1097/BTH.0b013e3181ec089e

[5] Keyser JJ, Eaton RG. 通过甲上皮袋形缝合术外科治愈慢性甲沟炎。Plast Reconstr Surg. 1976;58(1):66-70. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006534-197607000-00011

[6] Bednar MS, Lane LB. 甲上皮袋形缝合术和拔甲术外科治疗慢性甲沟炎。J Hand Surg Am. 1991;16(2):314-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0363-5023(10)80118-2


Evidence & references

This is the clinical evidence summary written for health professionals. It is technical, and it lists the research this page was built from. You do not need to read it to understand your treatment or to make a decision about it.

Overview

  • In chronic paronychia, C. albicans involvement was found in the outer epidermis with mycelium, but without involvement of the dermis [1].
  • Candida albicans was recovered in approximately 15% of paronychia cases [3].
  • Untreated paronychial infection can cross the eponychium to the contralateral paronychial fold, course anteriorly into the pulp tissue, and decompress into the periosteum and distal tuft, causing osteomyelitis and necrosis [5].

Anatomy & Pathophysiology

Microbiology & Histopathology

  • In chronic paronychia, C. albicans involvement is present in the outer epidermis with mycelium, but there is no involvement of the dermis [1].

Surgical Anatomy & Pathology

  • In recalcitrant cases of chronic paronychia, surgical treatment may include en bloc excision of the proximal nail fold or eponychial marsupialization, with or without nail plate removal [2].

Clinical Presentation

  • Candida albicans was recovered in about 15% of paronychia cases [3].
  • In a patient with habitual nail biting, an untreated paronychial infection crossed the eponychium to the contralateral paronychial fold, coursed anteriorly into the pulp tissue, and decompressed into the periosteum and distal tuft, causing osteomyelitis and necrosis [5].

Investigations

  • In chronic paronychia, C. albicans involvement was found in the outer epidermis with mycelium, but no involvement of the dermis was observed [1].
  • A careful physical examination is essential to direct care and future testing, as diagnostic tests such as imaging and serum laboratory studies can be expensive, time-consuming, and often nonspecific [27].

Treatment

Operative

  • In recalcitrant cases of chronic paronychia, surgical treatment may include en bloc excision of the proximal nail fold [2].
  • In recalcitrant cases of chronic paronychia, surgical treatment may include eponychial marsupialization [2].
  • Surgical treatment for recalcitrant chronic paronychia may be performed with or without nail plate removal [2].
  • The eponychial folding flap demonstrated statistically superior outcomes in terms of apparent nail-plate exposure compared to rectangle recession after fingertip amputation [15].
  • The mean difference in apparent nail-plate exposure between the eponychial folding flap and rectangle recession was 0.61 mm (95% CI, 0.35—0.87 mm; P < .001) [15].
  • The eponychial folding flap demonstrated statistically superior aesthetic satisfaction compared to rectangle recession after fingertip amputation [15].
  • The eponychial folding flap demonstrated statistically superior postoperative pain outcomes compared to rectangle recession after fingertip amputation [15].
  • The application of the eponychial flap allowed a nail lengthening ranging from 28.5 to 80% of the exposed nail body [9].

Non-Operative

  • In chronic paronychia, C. albicans involvement is present in the outer epidermis with mycelium [1].
  • In chronic paronychia, C. albicans involvement does not extend to the dermis [1].
  • The nail should be retained whenever possible because it can be used as a splint and simultaneous waterproof dressing in many finger tip injuries [12].
  • Retaining the nail eliminates most of the pain attributable to exposure of the nail bed in many cases [12].

Complications

  • In recalcitrant cases of chronic paronychia, surgical treatment may include en bloc excision of the proximal nail fold or an eponychial marsupialization, with or without nail plate removal [2].

Recovery

  • The eponychial folding flap demonstrated statistically superior outcomes in terms of apparent nail-plate exposure compared to rectangle recession, with a mean difference of 0.61 mm (95% CI, 0.35—0.87 mm; P < .001) [15].
  • The eponychial folding flap demonstrated statistically superior outcomes in terms of aesthetic satisfaction compared to rectangle recession [15].
  • The eponychial folding flap demonstrated statistically superior outcomes in terms of postoperative pain compared to rectangle recession [15].

Key Evidence

  • [L4] Each lesion studied had C. albicans involvement with mycelium in the outer epidermis but no involvement of the dermis. [1] (10.1001/archderm.1962.01590090066015)
  • [L4] In recalcitrant cases, surgical treatment may be resorted to, which includes en bloc excision of the proximal nail fold or an eponychial marsupialization, with or without nail plate removal. [2] (10.4103/0019-5154.123482)
  • [L4] Candida albicans was recovered in about 15% of the cases. [3] (10.1016/0266-7681(93)90063-l)
  • [L5] This patient with habitual nail biting developed a paronychial infection, which untreated, crossed the eponychium to the contralateral paronychial fold, coursed anteriorly into the pulp tissue, and finally decompressed into the periosteum and distal tuft, causing osteomyelitis and necrosis. [5] (10.1016/s0363-5023(05)80062-0)
  • [L4] The application of the eponychial flap allowed a nail lengthening ranging from 28.5 to 80% of the exposed nail body. [9] (10.1016/s0363-5023(03)80451-3)
  • [L5] The nail should be retained whenever possible because it can be used as a splint and simultaneous waterproof dressing in many finger tip injuries, and in many cases eliminates most of the pain attributable to exposure of the nail bed. [12] (10.1016/s0266-7681(84)80030-3)
  • [L4] The eponychial folding flap demonstrated statistically superior outcomes in terms of apparent nail-plate exposure (mean difference 0.61 mm; 95% CI, 0.35—0.87 mm; P < .001), aesthetic satisfaction, and postoperative pain, without compromising scar quality or functional recovery. [15] (10.1016/j.jhsg.2026.101101)

References

[1] Chronic Paronychia. Archives of Dermatology. 1962. DOI: 10.1001/archderm.1962.01590090066015

[2] Management of chronic paronychia. Indian Journal of Dermatology. 2014. DOI: 10.4103/0019-5154.123482

[3] Paronychia: a Mixed Infection. Journal of Hand Surgery. 1993. DOI: 10.1016/0266-7681(93)90063-l

[5] Eikenella osteomyelitis in a chronic nail biter: A case report. The Journal of Hand Surgery. 1995. DOI: 10.1016/s0363-5023(05)80062-0

[9] The eponychial flap: A new technique to restore the length of a short nail. The Journal of Hand Surgery. 2003. DOI: 10.1016/s0363-5023(03)80451-3

[12] The Best Dressing for a Nail Bed is the Nail Itself. Journal of Hand Surgery. 1984. DOI: 10.1016/s0266-7681(84)80030-3

[15] Comparative Outcomes of Rectangle Recession Versus Eponychial Folding Flaps for Nail-Plate Length After Fingertip Amputation. Journal of Hand Surgery Global Online. 2026. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhsg.2026.101101

[27] Orthopaedic Knowledge Update 13 Ebook Without Multimedia. Anatomy, Evaluation, Clinical Examination, and Imaging > Evaluation and Clinical Examination: Current Concepts.

Creative Commons BY-NC 4.0

CC Creative Commons licence
BY Attribution — you must credit the source
NC NonCommercial — not for commercial use

Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International


Creative Commons Corporation ("Creative Commons") is not a law firm and does not provide legal services or legal advice. Distribution of Creative Commons public licenses does not create a lawyer-client or other relationship. Creative Commons makes its licenses and related information available on an "as-is" basis. Creative Commons gives no warranties regarding its licenses, any material licensed under their terms and conditions, or any related information. Creative Commons disclaims all liability for damages resulting from their use to the fullest extent possible.

Using Creative Commons Public Licenses

Creative Commons public licenses provide a standard set of terms and conditions that creators and other rights holders may use to share original works of authorship and other material subject to copyright and certain other rights specified in the public license below. The following considerations are for informational purposes only, are not exhaustive, and do not form part of our licenses.

Considerations for licensors: Our public licenses are intended for use by those authorized to give the public permission to use material in ways otherwise restricted by copyright and certain other rights. Our licenses are irrevocable. Licensors should read and understand the terms and conditions of the license they choose before applying it. Licensors should also secure all rights necessary before applying our licenses so that the public can reuse the material as expected. Licensors should clearly mark any material not subject to the license. This includes other CC- licensed material, or material used under an exception or limitation to copyright. More considerations for licensors: wiki.creativecommons.org/Considerations_for_licensors

Considerations for the public: By using one of our public licenses, a licensor grants the public permission to use the licensed material under specified terms and conditions. If the licensor's permission is not necessary for any reason--for example, because of any applicable exception or limitation to copyright--then that use is not regulated by the license. Our licenses grant only permissions under copyright and certain other rights that a licensor has authority to grant. Use of the licensed material may still be restricted for other reasons, including because others have copyright or other rights in the material. A licensor may make special requests, such as asking that all changes be marked or described. Although not required by our licenses, you are encouraged to respect those requests where reasonable. More considerations for the public: wiki.creativecommons.org/Considerations_for_licensees


Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International Public License

By exercising the Licensed Rights (defined below), You accept and agree to be bound by the terms and conditions of this Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International Public License ("Public License"). To the extent this Public License may be interpreted as a contract, You are granted the Licensed Rights in consideration of Your acceptance of these terms and conditions, and the Licensor grants You such rights in consideration of benefits the Licensor receives from making the Licensed Material available under these terms and conditions.

Section 1 -- Definitions.

a. Adapted Material means material subject to Copyright and Similar Rights that is derived from or based upon the Licensed Material and in which the Licensed Material is translated, altered, arranged, transformed, or otherwise modified in a manner requiring permission under the Copyright and Similar Rights held by the Licensor. For purposes of this Public License, where the Licensed Material is a musical work, performance, or sound recording, Adapted Material is always produced where the Licensed Material is synched in timed relation with a moving image.

b. Adapter's License means the license You apply to Your Copyright and Similar Rights in Your contributions to Adapted Material in accordance with the terms and conditions of this Public License.

c. Copyright and Similar Rights means copyright and/or similar rights closely related to copyright including, without limitation, performance, broadcast, sound recording, and Sui Generis Database Rights, without regard to how the rights are labeled or categorized. For purposes of this Public License, the rights specified in Section 2(b)(1)-(2) are not Copyright and Similar Rights.

d. Effective Technological Measures means those measures that, in the absence of proper authority, may not be circumvented under laws fulfilling obligations under Article 11 of the WIPO Copyright Treaty adopted on December 20, 1996, and/or similar international agreements.

e. Exceptions and Limitations means fair use, fair dealing, and/or any other exception or limitation to Copyright and Similar Rights that applies to Your use of the Licensed Material.

f. Licensed Material means the artistic or literary work, database, or other material to which the Licensor applied this Public License.

g. Licensed Rights means the rights granted to You subject to the terms and conditions of this Public License, which are limited to all Copyright and Similar Rights that apply to Your use of the Licensed Material and that the Licensor has authority to license.

h. Licensor means the individual(s) or entity(ies) granting rights under this Public License.

i. NonCommercial means not primarily intended for or directed towards commercial advantage or monetary compensation. For purposes of this Public License, the exchange of the Licensed Material for other material subject to Copyright and Similar Rights by digital file-sharing or similar means is NonCommercial provided there is no payment of monetary compensation in connection with the exchange.

j. Share means to provide material to the public by any means or process that requires permission under the Licensed Rights, such as reproduction, public display, public performance, distribution, dissemination, communication, or importation, and to make material available to the public including in ways that members of the public may access the material from a place and at a time individually chosen by them.

k. Sui Generis Database Rights means rights other than copyright resulting from Directive 96/9/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 March 1996 on the legal protection of databases, as amended and/or succeeded, as well as other essentially equivalent rights anywhere in the world.

l. You means the individual or entity exercising the Licensed Rights under this Public License. Your has a corresponding meaning.

Section 2 -- Scope.

a. License grant.

1. Subject to the terms and conditions of this Public License, the Licensor hereby grants You a worldwide, royalty-free, non-sublicensable, non-exclusive, irrevocable license to exercise the Licensed Rights in the Licensed Material to:

a. reproduce and Share the Licensed Material, in whole or in part, for NonCommercial purposes only; and

b. produce, reproduce, and Share Adapted Material for NonCommercial purposes only.

2. Exceptions and Limitations. For the avoidance of doubt, where Exceptions and Limitations apply to Your use, this Public License does not apply, and You do not need to comply with its terms and conditions.

3. Term. The term of this Public License is specified in Section 6(a).

4. Media and formats; technical modifications allowed. The Licensor authorizes You to exercise the Licensed Rights in all media and formats whether now known or hereafter created, and to make technical modifications necessary to do so. The Licensor waives and/or agrees not to assert any right or authority to forbid You from making technical modifications necessary to exercise the Licensed Rights, including technical modifications necessary to circumvent Effective Technological Measures. For purposes of this Public License, simply making modifications authorized by this Section 2(a) (4) never produces Adapted Material.

5. Downstream recipients.

a. Offer from the Licensor -- Licensed Material. Every recipient of the Licensed Material automatically receives an offer from the Licensor to exercise the Licensed Rights under the terms and conditions of this Public License.

b. No downstream restrictions. You may not offer or impose any additional or different terms or conditions on, or apply any Effective Technological Measures to, the Licensed Material if doing so restricts exercise of the Licensed Rights by any recipient of the Licensed Material.

6. No endorsement. Nothing in this Public License constitutes or may be construed as permission to assert or imply that You are, or that Your use of the Licensed Material is, connected with, or sponsored, endorsed, or granted official status by, the Licensor or others designated to receive attribution as provided in Section 3(a)(1)(A)(i).

b. Other rights.

1. Moral rights, such as the right of integrity, are not licensed under this Public License, nor are publicity, privacy, and/or other similar personality rights; however, to the extent possible, the Licensor waives and/or agrees not to assert any such rights held by the Licensor to the limited extent necessary to allow You to exercise the Licensed Rights, but not otherwise.

2. Patent and trademark rights are not licensed under this Public License.

3. To the extent possible, the Licensor waives any right to collect royalties from You for the exercise of the Licensed Rights, whether directly or through a collecting society under any voluntary or waivable statutory or compulsory licensing scheme. In all other cases the Licensor expressly reserves any right to collect such royalties, including when the Licensed Material is used other than for NonCommercial purposes.

Section 3 -- License Conditions.

Your exercise of the Licensed Rights is expressly made subject to the following conditions.

a. Attribution.

1. If You Share the Licensed Material (including in modified form), You must:

a. retain the following if it is supplied by the Licensor with the Licensed Material:

i. identification of the creator(s) of the Licensed Material and any others designated to receive attribution, in any reasonable manner requested by the Licensor (including by pseudonym if designated);

ii. a copyright notice;

iii. a notice that refers to this Public License;

iv. a notice that refers to the disclaimer of warranties;

v. a URI or hyperlink to the Licensed Material to the extent reasonably practicable;

b. indicate if You modified the Licensed Material and retain an indication of any previous modifications; and

c. indicate the Licensed Material is licensed under this Public License, and include the text of, or the URI or hyperlink to, this Public License.

2. You may satisfy the conditions in Section 3(a)(1) in any reasonable manner based on the medium, means, and context in which You Share the Licensed Material. For example, it may be reasonable to satisfy the conditions by providing a URI or hyperlink to a resource that includes the required information.

3. If requested by the Licensor, You must remove any of the information required by Section 3(a)(1)(A) to the extent reasonably practicable.

4. If You Share Adapted Material You produce, the Adapter's License You apply must not prevent recipients of the Adapted Material from complying with this Public License.

Section 4 -- Sui Generis Database Rights.

Where the Licensed Rights include Sui Generis Database Rights that apply to Your use of the Licensed Material:

a. for the avoidance of doubt, Section 2(a)(1) grants You the right to extract, reuse, reproduce, and Share all or a substantial portion of the contents of the database for NonCommercial purposes only;

b. if You include all or a substantial portion of the database contents in a database in which You have Sui Generis Database Rights, then the database in which You have Sui Generis Database Rights (but not its individual contents) is Adapted Material; and

c. You must comply with the conditions in Section 3(a) if You Share all or a substantial portion of the contents of the database.

For the avoidance of doubt, this Section 4 supplements and does not replace Your obligations under this Public License where the Licensed Rights include other Copyright and Similar Rights.

Section 5 -- Disclaimer of Warranties and Limitation of Liability.

a. UNLESS OTHERWISE SEPARATELY UNDERTAKEN BY THE LICENSOR, TO THE EXTENT POSSIBLE, THE LICENSOR OFFERS THE LICENSED MATERIAL AS-IS AND AS-AVAILABLE, AND MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE LICENSED MATERIAL, WHETHER EXPRESS, IMPLIED, STATUTORY, OR OTHER. THIS INCLUDES, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES OF TITLE, MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, ABSENCE OF LATENT OR OTHER DEFECTS, ACCURACY, OR THE PRESENCE OR ABSENCE OF ERRORS, WHETHER OR NOT KNOWN OR DISCOVERABLE. WHERE DISCLAIMERS OF WARRANTIES ARE NOT ALLOWED IN FULL OR IN PART, THIS DISCLAIMER MAY NOT APPLY TO YOU.

b. TO THE EXTENT POSSIBLE, IN NO EVENT WILL THE LICENSOR BE LIABLE TO YOU ON ANY LEGAL THEORY (INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, NEGLIGENCE) OR OTHERWISE FOR ANY DIRECT, SPECIAL, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE, EXEMPLARY, OR OTHER LOSSES, COSTS, EXPENSES, OR DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF THIS PUBLIC LICENSE OR USE OF THE LICENSED MATERIAL, EVEN IF THE LICENSOR HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH LOSSES, COSTS, EXPENSES, OR DAMAGES. WHERE A LIMITATION OF LIABILITY IS NOT ALLOWED IN FULL OR IN PART, THIS LIMITATION MAY NOT APPLY TO YOU.

c. The disclaimer of warranties and limitation of liability provided above shall be interpreted in a manner that, to the extent possible, most closely approximates an absolute disclaimer and waiver of all liability.

Section 6 -- Term and Termination.

a. This Public License applies for the term of the Copyright and Similar Rights licensed here. However, if You fail to comply with this Public License, then Your rights under this Public License terminate automatically.

b. Where Your right to use the Licensed Material has terminated under Section 6(a), it reinstates:

1. automatically as of the date the violation is cured, provided it is cured within 30 days of Your discovery of the violation; or

2. upon express reinstatement by the Licensor.

For the avoidance of doubt, this Section 6(b) does not affect any right the Licensor may have to seek remedies for Your violations of this Public License.

c. For the avoidance of doubt, the Licensor may also offer the Licensed Material under separate terms or conditions or stop distributing the Licensed Material at any time; however, doing so will not terminate this Public License.

d. Sections 1, 5, 6, 7, and 8 survive termination of this Public License.

Section 7 -- Other Terms and Conditions.

a. The Licensor shall not be bound by any additional or different terms or conditions communicated by You unless expressly agreed.

b. Any arrangements, understandings, or agreements regarding the Licensed Material not stated herein are separate from and independent of the terms and conditions of this Public License.

Section 8 -- Interpretation.

a. For the avoidance of doubt, this Public License does not, and shall not be interpreted to, reduce, limit, restrict, or impose conditions on any use of the Licensed Material that could lawfully be made without permission under this Public License.

b. To the extent possible, if any provision of this Public License is deemed unenforceable, it shall be automatically reformed to the minimum extent necessary to make it enforceable. If the provision cannot be reformed, it shall be severed from this Public License without affecting the enforceability of the remaining terms and conditions.

c. No term or condition of this Public License will be waived and no failure to comply consented to unless expressly agreed to by the Licensor.

d. Nothing in this Public License constitutes or may be interpreted as a limitation upon, or waiver of, any privileges and immunities that apply to the Licensor or You, including from the legal processes of any jurisdiction or authority.


Creative Commons is not a party to its public licenses. Notwithstanding, Creative Commons may elect to apply one of its public licenses to material it publishes and in those instances will be considered the “Licensor.” The text of the Creative Commons public licenses is dedicated to the public domain under the CC0 Public Domain Dedication. Except for the limited purpose of indicating that material is shared under a Creative Commons public license or as otherwise permitted by the Creative Commons policies published at creativecommons.org/policies, Creative Commons does not authorize the use of the trademark "Creative Commons" or any other trademark or logo of Creative Commons without its prior written consent including, without limitation, in connection with any unauthorized modifications to any of its public licenses or any other arrangements, understandings, or agreements concerning use of licensed material. For the avoidance of doubt, this paragraph does not form part of the public licenses.

Creative Commons may be contacted at creativecommons.org.