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软骨如何工作(以及为何难以愈合)

Illustration: 软骨如何工作(以及为何难以愈合)

本页面由机器翻译,尚未经临床医生审核。英文版本为权威版本。

软骨是覆盖在关节内骨骼末端的光滑、有光泽的表面。它是人体中最非凡的材料之一:比冰面更光滑,能够缓冲一生的负荷,但与骨骼和肌腱不同,它几乎没有自我修复能力。这一事实解释了为什么软骨损伤和骨关节炎如此棘手,以及为什么保护软骨至关重要。本页以通俗易懂的语言解释了软骨是什么以及它为何愈合能力差,随后为好奇的读者深入探讨这种组织精妙的工程结构,以及我们通常轻描淡写地称为“磨损”背后的活跃生物学机制。

软骨是什么及其功能

此处所指的软骨,即关节软骨,是覆盖在骨骼末端(即关节面)的一层坚硬、光滑、白色的组织,厚度仅几毫米。它出色地承担两项功能:

  • 它是一个近乎无摩擦的滑动表面,使关节内的骨骼能够以极小的阻力相互滑动。
  • 它是一个缓冲垫,将负荷分散至整个关节,保护下方的骨骼免受冲击。

软骨是活组织,但属于一种特殊类型:它没有血管和神经。缺乏神经意味着磨损的软骨表面本身不会感到疼痛(关节炎的疼痛来源于其他结构)。缺乏血液供应是其重大弱点的关键所在:它无法像皮肤或骨骼那样愈合。

软骨为何难以愈合

在身体的其他几乎所有部位,愈合都始于出血:血凝块形成,炎症细胞到达,生长因子启动修复过程。软骨没有血液供应,因此其损伤无法获得上述任何支持。此外,软骨中数量有限的固有细胞被困在周围基质中,无法迁移至伤口处进行修补。

结果是,局限于软骨内的擦伤或裂纹往往只会原样存在。若损伤更深(穿透软骨并累及下方骨质),虽可填充修复,但形成的是类似瘢痕的“纤维软骨”,其强度低于且耐久性不及原始软骨。因此,软骨损伤往往具有永久性并缓慢进展,这正是预防与保护至关重要的原因。

什么有助于保护您的软骨

  • 保持活动。 软骨依靠关节液滋养,关节液在您活动时进出关节;规律且舒适的活动能为其提供营养,而长时间不活动则会使其“饥饿”。
  • 保持健康体重。 每增加一公斤体重,关节面承受的额外负荷就会增加。
  • 锻炼关节周围的肌肉。 强壮的肌肉可以分担负荷并吸收冲击,从而保护软骨。
  • 妥善处理损伤。 关节松动或不稳定会加速软骨磨损;治疗不稳定状况可以保护关节面。

深入探讨

Advanced reading: the deeper science (optional)

本节将提供更具深度、面向学生水平的生物学解释。理解软骨问题及其治疗并不需要这部分内容,但如果您对为何软骨可能比冰面更滑,以及为何“磨损”实际上是一种主动性疾病感到好奇,请继续阅读。

软骨作为活体组织

滑膜关节的横截面,显示覆盖在骨端上的关节软骨、滑膜、关节囊以及含有滑液的关节腔。
关节软骨覆盖在滑膜关节内骨骼的末端,浸泡在既起润滑作用又提供营养的滑液中。 OpenStax, Anatomy & Physiology, CC BY 3.0

关节软骨是一种称为透明软骨的类型。它由稀疏分布的细胞(软骨细胞)构成,这些细胞被其自身制造并维持的巨大体积的基质所包围。基质是软骨所有功能的奥秘所在。它是由II型胶原纤维构成的网状结构,其中填充着大型瓶刷状、具有强烈吸水性的分子,称为蛋白聚糖(主要是聚集蛋白聚糖),并且含有约70–80%的水分。胶原网抵抗被拉断;聚集蛋白聚糖吸收水分并产生抵抗被压扁的膨胀压。实际上,软骨是一个充满水的海绵,在纤维网内部处于张力状态。

它还具有独特的隔离性:没有血管,没有神经,没有淋巴管。软骨细胞位于微小的腔隙(陷窝)中,缓慢地维持其基质区域,且无法移动。

近乎无摩擦的轴承:软骨如何承载负荷

关节软骨的组织学结构分为三个区域——浅层(扁平细胞)、中层和深层(柱状细胞)——展示了软骨细胞形态随深度变化的情况。
软骨呈分层结构——软骨细胞在滑动面附近(浅表层)呈扁平状,随深度增加逐渐变为圆形,进而呈柱状,这反映了固定表面与下方骨骼的胶原纤维结构的改变。 Bautista et al., Wikimedia Commons, CC0

软骨是已知最光滑的材料之一:其摩擦系数约为 0.001,低于冰面在冰面上滑动的摩擦系数。它通过两种协同作用的机制实现这一特性。

首先,它是双相的,即浸泡在流体中的固体基质。当关节承受负荷时,被困住的水无法立即排出,因此产生压力并承载负荷,初始时承载超过 90% 的负荷。承载力的来源是流体压力,而非固体框架,这类似于站在水床上。随着接触点的移动(因为您持续运动),流体在前方渗出,并在后方被重新吸入。这种组织间液增压是软骨能够以极低的摩擦或磨损承载巨大负荷的主要原因。

其次,表面覆盖着一层由分子组成的光滑边界层,包括来自关节液的润滑素(也称为 PRG4)和透明质酸,形成一层水合薄膜,防止两个表面直接接触。

基质还排列成分区:胶原纤维在表层(浅层)平行于表面运行,固定润滑层并抵抗剪切力;在中层,它们变得更加随机;在深层,它们垂直锚定,进入钙化软骨层(由一条称为潮线的线分隔),该层将柔软的软骨牢固地结合到坚硬的骨骼上,这与肌腱附着点解决的将软组织与硬组织连接起来的工程挑战相同。

软骨为何几乎无法愈合

将上述因素综合起来,其愈合能力差的原因便清晰可辨:

  • 缺乏血液供应意味着无法形成血凝块,没有炎症细胞,也缺乏在其他部位驱动修复的生长因子。
  • 细胞作用有限:软骨细胞数量稀少,被包裹在基质中,且迁移和增殖能力不足以填补缺损。
  • 缺损深度决定反应类型。 局限于软骨内的部分厚度缺损无法触及血液或骨髓,因此几乎得不到任何修复反应。而穿透至软骨下骨的全厚度缺损则允许骨髓细胞和血液涌入,这些细胞虽能填补缺损,但形成的是纤维软骨(含I型胶原,蛋白聚糖含量低),其力学性能较差,且比真正的透明软骨磨损得更快。

这正是软骨手术的核心困境:我们可以填补缺损,但无法用真正的软骨组织来填补。

软骨的营养供给

由于软骨自身没有血管,其营养依靠滑液(关节液)的扩散获得,而这种扩散由运动和负荷驱动。每次关节承受负荷并卸除负荷时,液体和营养物质都会被泵入和泵出软骨(这与手指运动滋养愈合中的屈肌腱的原理类似)。因此,软骨确实需要周期性负荷才能保持健康:长期制动或卸载会导致其退化,而适度、规律的活动则能维持其健康。理疗师所说的“运动即润滑剂”在此具有真实的生物学基础。

骨关节炎:软骨的退变

骨关节炎(OA)通常被称为“磨损”,但这低估了它的本质:它是一个主动的生物学过程,而不仅仅是机械性侵蚀。

在机械过载、损伤、衰老或关节不稳定的触发下,软骨细胞会切换至破坏模式。它们上调基质降解酶(如基质金属蛋白酶(MMPs)中的MMP-13,以及聚集蛋白聚糖酶(aggrecanases)中的ADAMTS-4和-5)的表达,这些酶分解II型胶原和聚集蛋白聚糖的速度超过了其再生速度。基质失去了保水性的蛋白聚糖,变得软化并出现纤维化。软骨细胞也发生表型改变(称为肥大),软骨开始钙化并允许血管长入,软骨下骨增厚并形成骨性突起(骨赘),关节滑膜(滑膜)出现轻度炎症,释放IL-1和TNF等信号分子,从而加剧这一恶性循环。由于软骨无法再生,这一过程在很大程度上是不可逆的,因此骨关节炎的治疗核心在于减负荷、强化肌力及体重管理;当软骨最终完全丧失时,则需进行关节置换。

修复软骨:为何如此困难

多种手术试图修复受损的关节面,而没有任何一种手术能完美解决问题的原因,直接源于上述生物学特性:

  • 微骨折术在软骨下骨上钻出微小孔洞,以允许骨髓细胞进入。这些细胞形成纤维软骨,短期内有用,但往往在几年后逐渐退化。
  • 骨软骨移植(OATS / 马赛克成形术)将软骨-骨柱从关节中受力较轻的部位转移过来。这确实是真正的透明软骨,但供体来源有限。
  • 细胞疗法(ACI / MACI)在实验室中培养患者自身的软骨细胞并重新植入;这种方法前景广阔,但技术要求高且仍不完美。

没有任何方法能可靠地重建具有精确分区结构和润滑功能的原始分层透明软骨。当整个关节的软骨磨损殆尽时,最终的解决方案仍然是关节置换。

什么有助于和损害软骨

  • 运动和适度负重滋养并维持软骨;长期制动会损害它。
  • 超重和关节不稳定加速软骨分解;强健的周围肌肉保护它。
  • 损伤,尤其是那些导致关节不稳定或损伤关节表面的损伤,会增加长期患骨关节炎的风险。
  • 以及贯穿本页的残酷事实:一旦软骨受到显著损伤,它不会再生。几乎没有其他组织的预防比这更重要。

参见


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b. To the extent possible, if any provision of this Public License is deemed unenforceable, it shall be automatically reformed to the minimum extent necessary to make it enforceable. If the provision cannot be reformed, it shall be severed from this Public License without affecting the enforceability of the remaining terms and conditions.

c. No term or condition of this Public License will be waived and no failure to comply consented to unless expressly agreed to by the Licensor.

d. Nothing in this Public License constitutes or may be interpreted as a limitation upon, or waiver of, any privileges and immunities that apply to the Licensor or You, including from the legal processes of any jurisdiction or authority.


Creative Commons is not a party to its public licenses. Notwithstanding, Creative Commons may elect to apply one of its public licenses to material it publishes and in those instances will be considered the “Licensor.” The text of the Creative Commons public licenses is dedicated to the public domain under the CC0 Public Domain Dedication. Except for the limited purpose of indicating that material is shared under a Creative Commons public license or as otherwise permitted by the Creative Commons policies published at creativecommons.org/policies, Creative Commons does not authorize the use of the trademark "Creative Commons" or any other trademark or logo of Creative Commons without its prior written consent including, without limitation, in connection with any unauthorized modifications to any of its public licenses or any other arrangements, understandings, or agreements concerning use of licensed material. For the avoidance of doubt, this paragraph does not form part of the public licenses.

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