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大麻与CBD用于止痛

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What the evidence does and doesn't show for cannabis and CBD in musculoskeletal pain, and practical and safety considerations.

Updated Sep 202618 citations
一片大麻叶。
越来越多的人询问大麻和CBD能否用于治疗肌肉骨骼疼痛；相关证据和法规仍在不断发展。 Kieran Hirpara 4.0

本页面由机器翻译，尚未经临床医生审核。英文版本为权威版本。

什么是

大麻类药物是指从大麻植物中提取制成的产品，包括大麻二酚（CBD）和四氢大麻酚（THC）。CBD是大麻植物中不会让人产生“快感”的成分，而THC则是会让人产生“快感”的成分。这些产品有油剂、片剂，也有可以涂抹在皮肤上的乳膏。

患有关节炎引起的长期疼痛、神经痛或术后疼痛的人，有时会询问这类药物。很多患者对此感到好奇。在一项调查中，80.9%在手部和上肢专科就诊的人表示会考虑使用医用大麻 [1]。在脊柱疼痛患者中，三分之一的人已经在使用 [2]。大量患有拇指根部磨损性关节炎的人表示有兴趣尝试 [3]。

它的作用机制仍在研究之中。您的身体有一套自身的系统，会对大麻中的化合物产生反应，而这套系统在您如何感受疼痛方面发挥着作用。一篇综述报告称，现有证据提示它对长期的肌肉、骨骼和神经疼痛有益且安全 [4]。但整体情况并不一致。试验发现，对于臂丛神经损伤（从颈部延伸到手臂的神经受到牵拉而损伤）后的神经痛，它并没有带来具有临床意义的益处 [5]。一种人工合成的THC似乎也没有减少膝关节置换术后的阿片类药物用量 [6]。

还有一些需要注意的地方。经常使用大麻与关节置换术后阿片类药物用量增加有关 [7]。有明确记录的大麻依赖者，在手部和腕部软组织手术后出现伤口问题的几率更高 [8]。对于许多病症，还需要更多研究才能给出明确建议 [9, 4]。

它有效吗？

坦白地说，这取决于您用它来治疗什么。对于长期的肌肉、骨骼和神经疼痛，一篇综述报告称，现有证据提示大麻类药物有益且安全 [4]。一项综述还发现，它可能有助于缓解脊柱以外四肢的神经痛 [11]。但具体到手部和手臂的病症，研究人员表示，还需要更多研究才能得出确切结论 [4]。

在手术方面，有一些令人鼓舞的发现。在关节镜下肩袖修复术后，可以将CBD纳入综合镇痛方案，而不会影响您短期或长期的恢复 [12, 13]。这意味着它没有使效果变差，而不是证明它能使效果更好。对于接受髋关节镜手术的青少年和年轻人，术前使用大麻的人与未使用的人相比，疼痛程度、止痛药需求和恢复情况都相同 [14]。

有些发现则不那么正面。在接受膝关节韧带重建的青少年中，报告使用大麻的人因疼痛需要留院过夜的情况更多，恢复运动所需的时间也更长 [15]。因此，同一种物质在一种情况下看似无害，在另一种情况下却可能带来问题。

了解哪些人倾向于使用它也很有意义。接受关节镜手术并报告使用大麻的人，通常更年轻，男性也更多 [16]。而且，大多数在手部和上肢专科就诊的人认为，医用大麻是治疗常见骨科问题的一种安全选择 [1]。

总而言之：对于某些用途，确实有证据支持；对于另一些用途，证据不一；而对于许多手部和手臂病症，目前还没有高质量的试验。如果您正在考虑使用，请询问医生，针对您的具体问题证据是怎么说的。

风险有哪些？

坦白地说，风险取决于您的具体情况，而且研究并未涵盖所有情况。对于四肢的神经痛，一项综述发现大麻类药物可能有帮助 [11]。但对于臂丛神经损伤（从颈部延伸到手臂的神经受到牵拉而损伤）后的神经痛，试验发现，在标准镇痛方案的基础上加用大麻类治疗，并没有带来具有临床意义的益处 [5]。

在手术前后，情况好坏参半。在关节镜下肩袖修复术后，可以将CBD纳入综合镇痛方案，而不会影响您短期或长期的恢复 [12, 13]。一项关于经颊部黏膜吸收CBD的研究发现，在同一种手术后的最初几天里，它的耐受性良好，并能减轻疼痛 [17]。但在接受膝关节韧带重建的青少年中，报告使用大麻的人因疼痛需要留院过夜的情况更多，恢复运动所需的时间也更长 [15]。有明确记录的大麻依赖者，在手部和腕部软组织手术后出现伤口问题的几率更高 [8]。

对于接受髋关节镜手术的青少年和年轻人，术前使用大麻的人与未使用的人相比，疼痛程度、止痛药需求和恢复情况都相同 [14]。研究人员还探讨了同时使用大麻和尼古丁是否会改变上肢骨折手术后出现问题的风险。他们没有发现明确的叠加效应，但也指出，该研究的规模可能不足以发现较小的效应 [18]。

目前的认识确实存在空白。一项研究发现，使用大麻并不影响髋关节置换术后的效果，但研究作者表示仍需要更多研究 [10]。研究人员还表示，对于许多手部和手臂病症，也需要更多研究 [9, 4]。因此，如果您使用大麻或CBD，请告诉医生。医生可以针对您的具体手术或病症，权衡证据已经说明了什么，以及还有哪些尚无定论。

这适合您吗？

这个问题没有简单的“是”或“否”。对于长期的肌肉、骨骼和神经疼痛，大麻类药物可能值得考虑，一篇综述报告称，现有证据提示它在这方面有益且安全 [4]。它也可能有助于缓解脊柱以外四肢的神经痛 [11]。但对于许多手部和手臂病症，目前还没有高质量的试验，因此没有人能确定它是否对您有帮助 [9, 4]。

在手术前后，答案取决于您的手术和既往情况。在关节镜下肩袖修复术后，CBD可以作为综合镇痛方案的一部分，而不会影响您的恢复 [12, 13]。但如果您经常使用大麻，则有一些需要注意的地方。经常使用大麻与关节置换术后阿片类药物用量增加有关 [7]。有明确记录的大麻依赖者，在手部和腕部软组织手术后出现伤口问题的几率更高 [8]。接受膝关节韧带重建并报告使用大麻的青少年，因疼痛需要留院过夜的情况更多，恢复运动所需的时间也更长 [15]。

与标准镇痛方案相比，大麻类药物并不能替代它们。对于臂丛神经损伤（从颈部延伸到手臂的神经受到牵拉而损伤）后的神经痛，试验发现，在标准治疗的基础上加用大麻类药物，并没有带来具有临床意义的益处 [5]。一种人工合成的THC似乎也没有减少膝关节置换术后的阿片类药物用量 [6]。

上面的风险部分更详细地介绍了需要注意的地方。如果您正在考虑尝试，请先与医生详细讨论。医生可以针对您的具体问题，权衡证据已经说明了什么，以及还有哪些尚无定论。这应该是您与医生共同做出的决定。

核心要点

对于长期的肌肉、骨骼和神经疼痛，大麻类药物可能值得考虑，一篇综述报告称，现有证据提示它在这方面有益且安全 [4]。在手术前后，关节镜下肩袖修复术后可以将CBD作为综合镇痛方案的一部分，而不会影响您短期或长期的恢复 [12, 13]。但同一种物质在一种情况下看似无害，在另一种情况下却可能带来问题，因此证据如何取决于您的具体病症或手术。最需要注意的一点是：如果您使用大麻或CBD，请告诉医生，这样医生才能针对您的情况，权衡研究已经说明了什么，以及还有哪些尚无定论。

Reviewed by Kieran Hirpara · 13 June 2026.

Want the clinical detail? Read the clinician version.

Talk to your treating clinician for advice specific to you.

For an appointment with the CQ Hand + Upper Limb team, ask your GP about a referral or visit www.cqupperlimb.com.

References
  1. Hand Surgery Patient Perspectives on Medical Cannabis: A Survey of Over 600 Patients. *Journal of Hand Surgery Global Online*. 2023. 10.1016/j.jhsg.2022.02.009
  2. Perceptions in orthopedic surgery on the use of cannabis in treating pain: a survey of patients with spine pain (POSIT Spine). *Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery and Research*. 2024. 10.1186/s13018-024-04558-6
  3. Assessment of Medical Cannabis in Patients With Osteoarthritis of the Thumb Basal Joint. *The Journal of Hand Surgery*. 2023. 10.1016/j.jhsa.2021.10.018
  4. Medical Cannabis in Hand Surgery: A Review of the Current Evidence. *The Journal of Hand Surgery*. 2023. 10.1016/j.jhsa.2022.11.008
  5. CORR Insights®: Does Cannabis-based Medicine Improve Pain and Sleep Quality in Patients With Traumatic Brachial Plexus Injuries? A Triple-blind, Crossover, Randomized Controlled Trial. *Clinical Orthopaedics & Related Research*. 2024. 10.1097/corr.0000000000003265
  6. A Synthetic Form of Cannabinoid Does Not Decrease Opioid Use After Total Knee Arthroplasty: A Prospective, Randomized, Triple-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study. *The Journal of Arthroplasty*. 2026. 10.1016/j.arth.2026.02.047
  7. CORR Insights®: Do Medical and Recreational Marijuana State Laws Impact Trends in Postoperative Opioid Prescriptions Among Patients Who Have Undergone TJA?. *Clinical Orthopaedics & Related Research*. 2025. 10.1097/corr.0000000000003472
  8. Is Cannabis Dependence Associated with Postoperative Infections in Hand and Wrist Surgeries?. *Journal of Hand Surgery Global Online*. 2026. 10.1016/j.jhsg.2026.100948
  9. Knowledge and Opinion on Cannabinoids Among Orthopaedic Traumatologists. *JAAOS: Global Research and Reviews*. 2021. 10.5435/jaaosglobal-d-21-00047
  10. Cannabis Use Does Not Affect Outcomes After Total Hip Arthroplasty. *The Journal of Arthroplasty*. 2023. 10.1016/j.arth.2023.03.040
  11. The Use of Cannabinoids in the Treatment of Peripheral Neuropathy and Neuropathic Pain: A Systematic Review. *The Journal of Hand Surgery*. 2025. 10.1016/j.jhsa.2024.09.015
  12. Cannabidiol for Postoperative Pain Control After Arthroscopic Rotator Cuff Repair Demonstrates No Deficits in Patient-Reported Outcomes Versus Placebo: 1-Year Follow-up of a Randomized Controlled Trial. *Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine*. 2024. 10.1177/23259671231222265
  13. Poster 186: Cannabidiol for Post-Operative Pain Control after Arthroscopic Rotator Cuff Repair Demonstrates No Functional Deficits at 1-Year. *Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine*. 2023. 10.1177/2325967123s00172
  14. No Evidence That Preoperative Marijuana Use Influences the Success of Hip Arthroscopy for Femoracetabular Impingement in Adolescents and Young Adults. *Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine*. 2025. 10.1177/23259671251385152
  15. Effect of Marijuana Use on Pain Management and Return to Sport After Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction in Pediatric and Adolescent Patients: A Matched Control Study. *Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine*. 2025. 10.1177/23259671251369015
  16. Poster 189. Cannabis Use in Patients Undergoing Sports Medicine Procedures and Post-Operative Pain Scores. *Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine*. 2026. 10.1177/2325967126s00487
  17. Effects Of Cannabidiol On Post-Operative Pain Following Arthroscopic Rotator Cuff Repair. *Journal of Shoulder and Elbow Surgery*. 2023. 10.1016/j.jse.2023.02.032
  18. Cannabis and nicotine use are independently associated with adverse surgical, medical, and psychosocial outcomes following upper extremity fracture fixation. *Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery and Research*. 2026. 10.1186/s13018-025-06635-w
Evidence & references

This is the clinical evidence summary written for health professionals. It is technical, and it lists the research this page was built from. You do not need to read it to understand your treatment or to make a decision about it.

Overview

  • Cannabidiol (CBD) can be considered in a postoperative multimodal pain management regimen without detrimental effects on patient-reported outcomes at 1-year follow-up after arthroscopic rotator cuff repair [1].
  • CBD can be considered in a postoperative multimodal pain management regimen without long-term functional deficits at 1-year follow-up after arthroscopic rotator cuff repair [2].
  • Cannabis-based medicines are applicable for the treatment of peripheral neuropathy and neuropathic pain [3].
  • 89% of participants in a survey of musculoskeletal pain patients considered medical cannabis to be more effective than narcotics for adequate pain management [4].
  • Regular cannabis use may be associated with increased opioid usage in the context of total joint arthroplasty [5].
  • No specific guidance for the use of cannabis in perioperative pain management can be suggested based on the association between regular cannabis use and increased opioid usage after total joint arthroplasty [5].
  • Patients estimated that medical cannabis could treat more than half of their spine pain [6].
  • One in three patients with spine pain were already using medical cannabis [6].
  • 79% of patients with spine pain believe cannabis could reduce opioid usage [6].
  • Most survey respondents in the orthopaedic sports medicine community believed that CBD has a role in postoperative and chronic pain management [7].
  • Large numbers of patients with osteoarthritis of the thumb basal joint would be interested in trialing either oral or topical formulations of medical cannabis for treatment of their pain [8].
  • 80.9% of patients presenting for hand and upper-extremity complaints would consider using medical cannabis [9].
  • Patients presenting for hand and upper-extremity complaints perceive medical cannabis as a safe treatment option for common orthopedic conditions [9].
  • Cost is identified as a major barrier to the use of medical cannabis by patients presenting for hand and upper-extremity complaints [9].
  • A synthetic form of THC does not appear to limit opioid intake after primary total knee arthroplasty [10].
  • Current evidence demonstrates efficacy and safety for chronic musculoskeletal and neuropathic pain [19].
  • Definitive conclusions regarding the efficacy of medical cannabis in hand and upper extremity conditions require continued investigation [19].

How It Works

  • Cannabidiol (CBD) can be considered in a postoperative multimodal pain management regimen without long-term functional deficits at 1-year follow-up after arthroscopic rotator cuff repair [2].
  • 89% of participants considered medical cannabis to be more effective than narcotics for adequate pain management [4].
  • No specific guidance in the use of cannabis in perioperative pain management can be suggested based on the association between regular cannabis use and increased opioid usage after total joint arthroplasty [5].
  • Cannabis-based medicine did not provide clinical improvement in pain compared with a placebo in patients with traumatic brachial plexus injuries [11].
  • A majority of sports medicine surgeons believe that CBD has a role in post-operative and chronic pain management [12].
  • More clinical research for cannabinoids is needed to help orthopaedic traumatologists provide guidance for patients seeking advice for this therapeutic [13].
  • Patients with documented cannabis dependence demonstrated higher odds of developing wound complications following hand and wrist soft-tissue surgical procedures [16].

What the Evidence Shows

Postoperative Pain Management

  • CBD can be considered in a post-operative multimodal pain management regimen without long-term functional deficits at 1-year follow-up after arthroscopic rotator cuff repair [2].
  • Buccally absorbed CBD demonstrates an acceptable safety profile and shows significant promise in reducing pain in the immediate peri-operative period following arthroscopic rotator cuff repair compared to control [17].
  • Cannabis use does not affect outcomes after total hip arthroplasty [14].
  • Further studies are warranted to determine the efficacy and safety of perioperative cannabis use after total hip arthroplasty to help guide orthopaedic surgeons in counseling patients [14].
  • Higher-level studies are needed to ascertain the impact of cannabis use for patients undergoing total joint arthroplasty [15].

Neuropathic Pain

  • Cannabis-based treatment did not provide clinically important benefit as an adjuvant to standard multimodal drug therapy for neuropathic pain in traumatic brachial plexus injuries [18].
  • Findings suggest the applicability of cannabis-based medicines for peripheral neuropathy [3].

Patient and Surgeon Perceptions

  • Patients estimated medical cannabis could treat more than half of their spine pain [6].

Practical Considerations

Postoperative Pain Management

  • CBD can be considered in a postoperative multimodal pain management regimen without detrimental effects on outcome [1].
  • CBD can be considered in a post-operative multimodal pain management regimen without long-term detrimental effects [2].

Patient and Provider Perceptions

  • Large numbers of patients with osteoarthritis of the thumb basal joint would be interested in trialing either oral or topical formulations of medical cannabis for treatment of their thumb basal joint pain [8].

Clinical Guidance and Research Needs

  • No specific guidance in the use of cannabis in perioperative pain management can be suggested based on the association between regular cannabis use and increased opioid usage in total joint arthroplasty [5].
  • More clinical research for cannabinoids is needed to help orthopaedic traumatologists provide guidance for patients seeking advice [13].

Key Evidence

  • [L2] These findings suggest that CBD can be considered in a postoperative multimodal pain management regimen without detrimental effects on outcome. [1] (10.1177/23259671231222265)
  • [L2] These findings suggest that CBD can be considered in a post-operative multimodal pain management regimen without long-term detrimental effects. [2] (10.1177/2325967123s00172)
  • [L2] These findings suggest the applicability of cannabis-based medicines for peripheral neuropathy. [3] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2024.09.015)
  • [L4] In addition, 89% of the participants considered medical cannabis to be more effective than narcotics for adequate pain management. [4] (10.5435/jaaosglobal-d-22-00055)
  • [Paper] Regular cannabis use may be associated with increased opioid usage in the context of total joint arthroplasty, and no specific guidance in the use of cannabis in perioperative pain management can be suggested based on this discovery. [5] (10.1097/corr.0000000000003472)
  • [L4] Patients estimated medical cannabis could treat more than half of their spine pain, with one in three patients already using medical cannabis, and 79% of patients believe cannabis could reduce opioid usage. [6] (10.1186/s13018-024-04558-6)
  • [L4] Most survey respondents believed that CBD has a role in postoperative and chronic pain management. [7] (10.1177/23259671231191766)
  • [L4] Large numbers of these patients would be interested in trialing either oral or topical formulations of medical cannabis for treatment of their thumb basal joint pain. [8] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2021.10.018)
  • [L3] Most patients presenting for hand and upper-extremity complaints would consider using medical cannabis (80.9%) and perceive it as a safe treatment option for common orthopedic conditions, with cost identified as a major barrier to use. [9] (10.1016/j.jhsg.2022.02.009)
  • [L1] Despite enthusiasm for cannabis after orthopaedic surgical procedures, this THC does not appear to limit opioid intake after primary TKA. [10] (10.1016/j.arth.2026.02.047)
  • [L1] Cannabis-based medicine did not provide clinical improvement in pain compared with a placebo in patients with traumatic brachial plexus injuries. [11] (10.1097/corr.0000000000003221)
  • [L4] A majority of sports medicine surgeons believe that CBD has a role in post-operative and chronic pain management. [12] (10.1177/2325967123s00336)
  • [L4] More clinical research for cannabinoids is needed to help orthopaedic traumatologists provide guidance for patients seeking advice for this recently popular therapeutic. [13] (10.5435/jaaosglobal-d-21-00047)
  • [L3] Further studies are warranted to determine the efficacy and safety of perioperative cannabis use after THA to help guide orthopaedic surgeons in counseling patients. [14] (10.1016/j.arth.2023.03.040)
  • [L1] Higher-level studies are needed to ascertain the impact of cannabis use for patients undergoing TJA. [15] (10.1016/j.arth.2023.07.008)
  • [L2] Patients with documented cannabis dependence demonstrated higher odds of developing wound complications following hand and wrist soft-tissue surgical procedures. [16] (10.1016/j.jhsg.2026.100948)
  • [L1] Buccally absorbed CBD demonstrates an acceptable safety profile and shows significant promise in reduction of pain in the immediate peri-operative period following ARCR compared to the control. [17] (10.1016/j.jse.2023.02.032)
  • [Paper] This is a commentary on a randomized controlled trial by Kittithamvongs et al., which found no clinically important benefit to cannabis-based treatment as an adjuvant to standard multimodal drug therapy for neuropathic pain in traumatic brachial plexus injuries. [18] (10.1097/corr.0000000000003265)
  • [L4] Current evidence demonstrates efficacy and safety for chronic musculoskeletal and neuropathic pain, but definitive conclusions regarding efficacy in hand and upper extremity conditions require continued investigation. [19] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2022.11.008)

References

[1] Cannabidiol for Postoperative Pain Control After Arthroscopic Rotator Cuff Repair Demonstrates No Deficits in Patient-Reported Outcomes Versus Placebo: 1-Year Follow-up of a Randomized Controlled Trial. Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine. 2024. DOI: 10.1177/23259671231222265

[2] Poster 186: Cannabidiol for Post-Operative Pain Control after Arthroscopic Rotator Cuff Repair Demonstrates No Functional Deficits at 1-Year. Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine. 2023. DOI: 10.1177/2325967123s00172

[3] The Use of Cannabinoids in the Treatment of Peripheral Neuropathy and Neuropathic Pain: A Systematic Review. The Journal of Hand Surgery. 2025. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhsa.2024.09.015

[4] Patient Experience and Perspective on Medical Cannabis as an Alternative for Musculoskeletal Pain Management. JAAOS: Global Research and Reviews. 2022. DOI: 10.5435/jaaosglobal-d-22-00055

[5] CORR Insights®: Do Medical and Recreational Marijuana State Laws Impact Trends in Postoperative Opioid Prescriptions Among Patients Who Have Undergone TJA?. Clinical Orthopaedics & Related Research. 2025. DOI: 10.1097/corr.0000000000003472

[6] Perceptions in orthopedic surgery on the use of cannabis in treating pain: a survey of patients with spine pain (POSIT Spine). Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery and Research. 2024. DOI: 10.1186/s13018-024-04558-6

[7] Perceptions and Opinions on Cannabidiol in the Orthopaedic Sports Medicine Community. Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine. 2023. DOI: 10.1177/23259671231191766

[8] Assessment of Medical Cannabis in Patients With Osteoarthritis of the Thumb Basal Joint. The Journal of Hand Surgery. 2023. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhsa.2021.10.018

[9] Hand Surgery Patient Perspectives on Medical Cannabis: A Survey of Over 600 Patients. Journal of Hand Surgery Global Online. 2023. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhsg.2022.02.009

[10] A Synthetic Form of Cannabinoid Does Not Decrease Opioid Use After Total Knee Arthroplasty: A Prospective, Randomized, Triple-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study. The Journal of Arthroplasty. 2026. DOI: 10.1016/j.arth.2026.02.047

[11] Does Cannabis-based Medicine Improve Pain and Sleep Quality in Patients With Traumatic Brachial Plexus Injuries? A Triple-blind, Crossover, Randomized Controlled Trial. Clinical Orthopaedics & Related Research. 2024. DOI: 10.1097/corr.0000000000003221

[12] Poster 373: Perceptions & Opinions on Cannabidiol Among Sports Medicine Orthopaedic Surgeons. Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine. 2023. DOI: 10.1177/2325967123s00336

[13] Knowledge and Opinion on Cannabinoids Among Orthopaedic Traumatologists. JAAOS: Global Research and Reviews. 2021. DOI: 10.5435/jaaosglobal-d-21-00047

[14] Cannabis Use Does Not Affect Outcomes After Total Hip Arthroplasty. The Journal of Arthroplasty. 2023. DOI: 10.1016/j.arth.2023.03.040

[15] Cannabis Use Following Total Joint Arthroplasty is Associated With Increased Risks? A Meta-Analysis. The Journal of Arthroplasty. 2024. DOI: 10.1016/j.arth.2023.07.008

[16] Is Cannabis Dependence Associated with Postoperative Infections in Hand and Wrist Surgeries?. Journal of Hand Surgery Global Online. 2026. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhsg.2026.100948

[17] Effects Of Cannabidiol On Post-Operative Pain Following Arthroscopic Rotator Cuff Repair. Journal of Shoulder and Elbow Surgery. 2023. DOI: 10.1016/j.jse.2023.02.032

[18] CORR Insights®: Does Cannabis-based Medicine Improve Pain and Sleep Quality in Patients With Traumatic Brachial Plexus Injuries? A Triple-blind, Crossover, Randomized Controlled Trial. Clinical Orthopaedics & Related Research. 2024. DOI: 10.1097/corr.0000000000003265

[19] Medical Cannabis in Hand Surgery: A Review of the Current Evidence. The Journal of Hand Surgery. 2023. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhsa.2022.11.008

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