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Inyecciones de células madre y terapia regenerativa

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What stem-cell and bone-marrow-derived injections claim to do for joints and tendons, what the evidence actually shows, and the safety and regulatory caveats.

Updated Sep 2026
Un tubo de ensayo junto a una jeringa.
Las inyecciones de células madre y regenerativas se publicitan ampliamente; sin embargo, la evidencia sólida sobre su uso en el sistema musculoesquelético sigue siendo limitada. Kieran Hirpara 4.0

Esta página se tradujo automáticamente y todavía no la ha revisado un médico. La versión en inglés es la versión oficial.

¿Qué es?

Las inyecciones de células madre constituyen un tipo de tratamiento regenerativo. La idea es utilizar las propias células reparadoras del cuerpo para favorecer la cicatrización del tejido dañado. Las células más estudiadas se denominan células madre mesenquimales (MSCs); se encuentran en la médula ósea y en la grasa, y pueden transformarse en otros tipos de tejido, como hueso o cartílago.

Se trata de un campo de investigación en pleno desarrollo dentro de la ortopedia y la traumatología [1]. Se considera su uso para problemas como la artrosis por desgaste, las lesiones tendinosas y las fracturas que no logran consolidarse. Algunos tratamientos relacionados emplean plasma rico en plaquetas (PRP), que es un concentrado obtenido a partir de la propia sangre del paciente. Otros utilizan exosomas, que son partículas diminutas liberadas por las células madre; estos podrían actuar sin necesidad de extraer células del cuerpo, evitando así algunos inconvenientes de la terapia con células madre, como el dolor en el lugar de extracción [2].

Los investigadores consideran que estos tratamientos actúan de varias maneras: las células podrían reducir la inflamación, estimular la reparación y favorecer el crecimiento de nuevo tejido [3]. Algunos métodos combinan distintos tratamientos; por ejemplo, la asociación de PRP con células madre derivadas de la grasa arrojó mejores resultados en el tratamiento de la artrosis según estudios de investigación [4].

Es importante conocer el estado actual de la ciencia: todavía no existen pruebas suficientes para recomendar las inyecciones de células madre como tratamiento de rutina [5]. Queda mucho por averiguar acerca del comportamiento de estas células antes de poder emplearlas de forma generalizada [3]. No obstante, algunos estudios resultan prometedores; por ejemplo, uno realizado en pacientes con artrosis de rodilla y sinovitis (inflamación del revestimiento articular) mostró mejorías, especialmente en personas con dolor moderado o intenso [6]. Sin embargo, gran parte de esta investigación se encuentra aún en fases iniciales.

Si su médico le habla de esta opción, será en ese contexto: un tratamiento en evolución, ofrecido conforme a la normativa sanitaria vigente [7], y únicamente cuando la evidencia científica lo respalde para su condición específica.

¿Funciona realmente?

La respuesta honesta es que depende de la afección; además, la evidencia científica sigue en desarrollo. En el caso de la artritis degenerativa de rodilla, algunos ensayos mostraron una mejora en el dolor, especialmente en personas que presentaban dolor moderado a severo al inicio [1]. Pero hay un problema: una revisión de dichos ensayos reveló que muchos informaron los resultados de manera tal que el tratamiento parecía más eficaz de lo que realmente es [2] [3]. Esto dificulta determinar cuán efectivo es en realidad.

Respecto a problemas de tendones y ligamentos, los resultados son variados. Cuando se añadió el tratamiento con células madre a la cirugía artroscópica para desgarros del manguito rotador, los tendones reparados mostraron mejores resultados en las imágenes por escáner que con la cirugía sola [4]. En la reconstrucción de ligamentos de rodilla, el uso de concentrado de médula ósea resultó ser seguro, y los pacientes tuvieron buenos resultados durante hasta 2 años después [5]. No obstante, el mismo estudio indicó que dichas células no influyeron en la integración del nuevo ligamento al hueso [5]. En otras palabras, el tratamiento es seguro, pero por ahora no presenta beneficios adicionales claros.

También existen aspectos que aún no se conocen. Distintas formas de preparar y administrar las células pueden alterar los resultados [6]. Algunos tratamientos basados en células no pueden compararse de manera justa entre sí, pues los estudios disponibles arrojan resultados contradictorios [7]. Opciones más recientes, como el uso de exosomas, se encuentran aún en fase de pruebas [8].

Entonces, ¿qué conclusión se puede extraer? Las inyecciones de células madre no constituyen un tratamiento comprobado ni habitual para la mayoría de las patologías ortopédicas [9]. Pueden ser útiles para algunas personas con determinadas afecciones. Si su médico le plantea esta opción, debería explicarle con claridad qué evidencias son sólidas y cuáles no.

¿Cuáles son los riesgos?

La respuesta honesta es que los investigadores todavía están determinando cuál es el panorama completo de riesgos. Hasta ahora, la mayoría de los estudios han sido de tamaño reducido, y algunos presentaron sus resultados de manera tal que el tratamiento parecía más eficaz de lo que realmente es [1] [2]. Eso dificulta conocer con certeza la frecuencia con la que surgen complicaciones.

Lo que los investigadores han analizado hasta ahora se refiere principalmente a indicadores de seguridad, no al recuento real de daños. En un estudio, se reportó que el uso de concentrado de médula ósea en cirugías de reconstrucción de ligamentos de rodilla parecía ser seguro [3]. En cuanto a un tratamiento elaborado a partir de partículas señalizadoras derivadas de células madre adiposas, investigaciones preliminares indicaron que podría ser bien tolerado [4]. No obstante, estos hallazgos vienen con una advertencia: la misma investigación señaló que se requieren más estudios para conocer sus verdaderos beneficios [4].

También existen interrogantes abiertos respecto a cómo se prepara y administra el tratamiento. La forma en que se manipulan las células, desde el momento de su extracción hasta su reinyección en el cuerpo, puede influir en el resultado [5]. En un estudio con animales, el uso de concentrado de médula ósea por sí solo, sin ningún material vehiculador que lo mantuviera en su lugar, no favoreció la unión del tendón al hueso [6]. Esto es relevante, pues indica que tanto la técnica como el entorno en que se aplica el tratamiento son factores determinantes para su eficacia, no solo las células en sí.

Un último punto importante: dado que estos tratamientos aún se encuentran en fase de investigación, su aplicación debe ajustarse a las normativas sanitarias vigentes, y la decisión de emplearlos debe basarse en la condición específica del paciente [7]. Si su médico le plantea esta opción, pregunte qué se sabe —y qué no— sobre su seguridad en su caso particular.

¿Es adecuado para usted?

Estas inyecciones se consideran para la artritis por desgaste, así como para ciertos problemas de curación de tendones, ligamentos y fracturas [1]. La investigación se ha centrado principalmente en la artritis de rodilla, incluyendo pacientes con inflamación del revestimiento articular [2]. También se han estudiado en combinación con cirugías de reconstrucción de ligamentos de rodilla [3].

Podría ser una opción adecuada para usted si padece dolor artrítico de moderado a severo, ya que este es el grupo en el que se observó una mejora más clara [2]. También podrían considerarse cuando una fractura no ha sanado por los métodos habituales [4].

Probablemente no sean adecuadas para usted si espera un tratamiento probado y de uso habitual; la evidencia actual no lo respalda aún [5]. Algunas opciones más recientes, como los exosomas, todavía se encuentran en fase de pruebas [6]. Además, un estudio determinó que la adición de células no influía en la integración del nuevo ligamento de rodilla al hueso [3]; por tanto, el tratamiento complementario no siempre aporta beneficios.

En comparación con las principales alternativas, como la cirugía convencional o los tratamientos no quirúrgicos consolidados, estas inyecciones ocupan un lugar distinto. Aún se están investigando, por lo que su aplicación se rige por las normativas sanitarias gubernamentales y se adapta a su condición específica [7].

Los riesgos se detallan en la sección correspondiente; le recomendamos leerla antes de tomar una decisión.

Esta debe ser una decisión conjunta con su médico. Pregunte qué evidencias son sólidas para su caso y cuáles no. Si la respuesta no es clara, un tratamiento ya establecido podría ser la mejor opción para usted.

Conclusión

Las inyecciones de células madre aún se encuentran en fase de estudio y no son un tratamiento de rutina. Podrían ser una opción a considerar para la artritis por desgaste, especialmente si el dolor que siente es de moderado a intenso [1]. Algunas alternativas más recientes, como los exosomas, se encuentran en las primeras fases de prueba [2]. Es importante tener expectativas realistas: pueden ayudar a algunas personas con ciertas afecciones, pero la forma en que se han reportado los resultados en los ensayos dificulta saber cuán efectivas son realmente [3] [4]. La advertencia más importante es la siguiente: si su médico le propone esta opción, debe hacerse dentro del marco de las normativas sanitarias gubernamentales y adaptarse a su condición específica [5]. Si la evidencia científica respecto a su problema es poco clara, es posible que un tratamiento ya consolidado le resulte más beneficioso.

Referencias

[1] Inyecciones de células madre mesenquimales en traumatología y ortopedia: ¿práctica común o aún un área prometedora con muchas incertidumbres? BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders. 2025. DOI: 10.1186/s12891-025-09123-8

[2] El papel de los exosomas en la regeneración de tejidos de las extremidades superiores. The Journal of Hand Surgery. 2024. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhsa.2023.11.016

[3] Consideraciones biológicas sobre las células madre mesenquimales y las células progenitoras endoteliales. Injury. 2008. DOI: 10.1016/s0020-1383(08)70012-3

[4] Las células madre mesenquimales derivadas del tejido adiposo combinadas con plasma rico en plaquetas son opciones superiores para el tratamiento de la artrosis. Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery and Research. 2025. DOI: 10.1186/s13018-024-05396-2

[5] Cochrane en CORR®: Inyecciones de células madre para la artrosis de rodilla. Clinical Orthopaedics & Related Research. 2025. DOI: 10.1097/corr.0000000000003593

[6] La inyección intraarticular de células madre mesenquimales derivadas del cordón umbilical es segura y eficaz para la artrosis moderada a grave de rodilla con sinovitis: un ensayo controlado aleatorizado y doble ciego. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders. 2025. DOI: 10.1186/s12891-025-09440-y

[7] Aplicación clínica de las células madre mesenquimales en ortopedia y traumatología en la práctica diaria. EFORT Open Reviews. 2026. DOI: 10.1530/eor-2026-0056

[8] Evaluación del sesgo en los ensayos clínicos con células madre mesenquimales para el tratamiento de la artrosis de rodilla: una revisión sistemática. The American Journal of Sports Medicine. 2025. DOI: 10.1177/03635465241274155

[9] Análisis de

[10] La reparación artroscópica combinada del manguito rotador con aumento de células madre mesenquimales muestra resultados funcionales similares, pero una tasa de integridad estructural más alta que la reparación aislada: un metaanálisis de estudios comparativos. JSES International. 2025. DOI: 10.1016/j.jseint.2025.03.017

[11] El uso de un injerto combinado con una matriz de colágeno e inyección de concentrado de aspirado de médula ósea para la reconstrucción del ligamento cruzado anterior parece seguro y produce resultados clínicos favorables a los 2 años de seguimiento. Arthroscopy, Sports Medicine, and Rehabilitation. 2025. DOI: 10.1016/j.asmr.2025.101209

[12] Ingeniería tisular con células madre mesenquimales: técnicas de aislamiento, expansión y aplicación. Injury. 2007. DOI: 10.1016/s0020-1383(08)70006-8

[13] Avances en el uso clínico del concentrado de aspirado de médula ósea para la artrosis de rodilla: opinión de expertos. Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery and Research. 2025. DOI: 10.1186/s13018-025-06509-1

[14] Efecto de las células madre mesenquimales derivadas del tejido adiposo y su secretoma en la artrosis en un modelo de rata. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders. 2025. DOI: 10.1186/s12891-025-08642-8

[15] El concentrado de aspirado de médula ósea combinado con un soporte adecuado promueve eficazmente la cicatrización de la interfaz hueso-tendón en un modelo de conejo con desgarro crónico del manguito rotador. The American Journal of Sports Medicine. 2025. DOI: 10.1177/03635465241313124

[16] La artrosis degenerativa es una enfermedad crónica reversible. Regenerative Therapy. 2020. DOI: 10.1016/j.reth.2020.07.007

[17] Evaluación de la capacidad de reparación ósea de las células madre mesenquimales mediante la diferenciación en linaje osteogénico en fracturas no consolidadas experimentales. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders. 2026. DOI: 10.1186/s12891-026-10114-6

Reviewed by Kieran Hirpara · 13 June 2026.

Want the clinical detail? Read the clinician version.

Talk to your treating clinician for advice specific to you.

For an appointment with the CQ Hand + Upper Limb team, ask your GP about a referral or visit www.cqupperlimb.com.

Evidence & references

This is the clinical evidence summary written for health professionals. It is technical, and it lists the research this page was built from. You do not need to read it to understand your treatment or to make a decision about it.

Overview

  • There is insufficient evidence to recommend stem cell injections in clinical practice at this time [1].
  • Stem cell injections should continue to be studied in rigorous trials [1].
  • Mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) injections represent a growing area of research in traumatology and orthopaedics [2].
  • More knowledge regarding the biological properties of MSCs and endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) is required before using these cells as a routinely applied therapy in the clinical setting [3].
  • The intervention schedule is significantly correlated with the therapeutic efficacy of stem cells for posttraumatic osteoarthritis (PTOA) [4].
  • The best effects of stem cell treatment for PTOA are observed on days 7 and 14 after anterior cruciate ligament transection (ACLT) [4].
  • Exosomes offer a promising cell-free alternative to mesenchymal stem cell therapies for upper-extremity tissue regeneration [5].
  • Exosomes overcome limitations such as donor-site morbidity and tumorigenesis associated with mesenchymal stem cell therapies [5].
  • A better understanding of exosome mechanisms and standardized isolation methods is required before clinical application [5].
  • Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been used in clinical practice in orthopaedics and traumatology in accordance with government health regulations [6].
  • The application of MSCs should be guided by the pathophysiology of the target disease [6].
  • The application of MSCs should follow regulatory frameworks to ensure safe and effective use [6].
  • Interventions employing platelet-rich plasma (PRP), MSCs, and exosomes are considered in the context of degenerative osteoarthritis as a reversible chronic disease [7].
  • The outcome of MSC tissue engineering approaches is influenced by the methodologies and materials used during the cycle from the isolation of MSCs to their re-implantation [10].
  • Cells with the characteristics of stromal stem cells were isolated from irrigation fluid, which is normally discarded [22].

How It Works

  • Exosomes overcome limitations of mesenchymal stem cell therapies such as donor-site morbidity and tumorigenesis [5].
  • Repeated intra-articular injections of PRP and adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) alleviated inflammation and pain in rats with surgically induced osteoarthritis [8].
  • Repeated intra-articular injections of PRP and ADSCs promoted tissue repair in rats with surgically induced osteoarthritis [8].
  • Repeated intra-articular injections of PRP and ADSCs modulated immune responses in rats with surgically induced osteoarthritis [8].
  • Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes (MSC-Exos) from diverse tissue sources are used in the treatment of osteoarthritis [9].
  • Endogenous MSCs can be pharmacologically mobilized into peripheral blood [11].
  • Endogenous MSCs can be recruited to the site of rotator cuff repair via local delivery of MCP-1 [11].
  • Osteogenically pre-differentiated adipose-derived stem cells (ASCs) demonstrated enhanced bone regenerative capacity compared with undifferentiated ASCs in experimental nonunion fractures [12].
  • Local delivery of MSC-derived extracellular vesicles (MSC-EVs) embedded within an injectable collagen scaffold enhanced tendon regeneration in a rat model of collagenase-induced tendinopathy [13].
  • Mesenchymal stem cell-derived miR-125b-1-3p-abundant exosomes alleviate osteoarthritis by modulating the KDM6B-H3K27me3-FOXM1 axis [17].
  • Local application of bone marrow aspirate concentrate (BMAC) without appropriate carriers could not enhance bone-tendon interface healing in a rabbit model of chronic rotator cuff tear [18].

What the Evidence Shows

  • Stem cell injections for osteoarthritis of the knee should continue to be studied in rigorous trials [1].
  • More knowledge regarding the biological properties of MSCs and endothelial progenitor cells is required before using these cells as a routinely applied therapy in the clinical setting [3].
  • The best effects of stem cell treatment for PTOA were observed on days 7 and 14 after anterior cruciate ligament transection (ACLT) in a rat model [4].
  • Mesenchymal stem cells have been used in clinical practice in orthopaedics and traumatology in accordance with government health regulations [6].
  • The application of mesenchymal stem cells should be guided by the pathophysiology of the target disease [6].
  • The application of mesenchymal stem cells should follow regulatory frameworks to ensure safe and effective use [6].
  • Interventions employing platelet-rich plasma (PRP), mesenchymal stem cells, and exosomes are considered in the context of degenerative osteoarthritis as a reversible chronic disease [7].
  • Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes (MSC-Exos) from diverse tissue sources are being researched for the treatment of osteoarthritis [9].
  • The outcome of mesenchymal stem cell tissue engineering approaches is influenced by the methodologies and materials used during the cycle from isolation to re-implantation [10].
  • Endogenous mesenchymal stem cells can be pharmacologically mobilized into peripheral blood [11].
  • Endogenous mesenchymal stem cells can be recruited to the site of rotator cuff repair via local delivery of MCP-1 [11].
  • Osteogenically pre-differentiated adipose-derived stem cells demonstrated enhanced bone regenerative capacity compared with undifferentiated adipose-derived stem cells in experimental nonunion fractures [12].
  • Local delivery of mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles (MSC-EVs) embedded within an injectable collagen scaffold enhanced tendon regeneration in a rat model of collagenase-induced tendinopathy [13].
  • Spin bias was present in most mesenchymal stem cell-related trials for knee osteoarthritis [14].
  • Spin bias was more frequent among trials that utilized adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells [14].
  • The superiority of bone marrow aspirate concentrate (BMAC) over other orthobiologic treatments cannot be assessed given the conflicting results presently available [15].
  • Treatment with umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cells (UC-MSCs) was shown to be a viable therapeutic option for knee osteoarthritis combined with synovitis [16].
  • Treatment with UC-MSCs showed clinical improvement at the end of follow-up for knee osteoarthritis combined with synovitis [16].
  • Clinical improvement with UC-MSCs was especially observed in patients with moderate to severe pain [16].
  • Arthroscopic surgical repair combined with mesenchymal stem cell augmentation reported better structural outcomes compared to isolated surgical repair for rotator cuff tears [19].

Practical Considerations

  • The best effects for stem cell treatment of PTOA are observed on days 7 and 14 after anterior cruciate ligament transection [4].
  • Interventions employing platelet-rich plasma (PRP), mesenchymal stem cells, and exosomes are considered for degenerative osteoarthritis [7].
  • Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes from diverse tissue sources are being researched for the treatment of osteoarthritis [9].
  • Spin bias was present in most mesenchymal stromal cell-related trials for knee osteoarthritis [14].
  • Spin bias had a higher frequency among trials that utilized adipose-derived mesenchymal stromal cells [14].
  • Treatment with umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cells (UC-MSCs) is a viable therapeutic option for knee osteoarthritis combined with synovitis [16].
  • UC-MSC treatment showed clinical improvement at the end of follow-up for knee osteoarthritis combined with synovitis [16].
  • UC-MSC treatment showed clinical improvement especially in patients with moderate to severe pain [16].
  • Certain local anesthetics, corticosteroids, and anticoagulants should be avoided when possible to preserve mesenchymal stem cell viability for BMAC procedures [21].

Key Evidence

  • [L1] There is insufficient evidence to recommend stem cell injections in clinical practice at this time, but they should continue to be studied in rigorous trials. [1] (10.1097/corr.0000000000003593)
  • [L2] MSC injections represent a growing area of research in traumatology and orthopaedics. [2] (10.1186/s12891-025-09123-8)
  • [L5] Even though MSCs and EPCs constitute a powerful candidate cell type for regenerative medicine, more knowledge in terms of their biological properties is required before using these cells as a routinely applied therapy in the clinical setting. [3] (10.1016/s0020-1383(08)70012-3)
  • [L5] The intervention schedule is significantly correlated with the therapeutic efficacy of stem cells for PTOA, with the best effects observed on days 7 and 14 after ACLT. [4] (10.1177/03635465251326499)
  • [L5] Exosomes offer a promising cell-free alternative to mesenchymal stem cell therapies for upper-extremity tissue regeneration by overcoming limitations such as donor-site morbidity and tumorigenesis, though a better understanding of their mechanisms and standardized isolation methods is required before clinical application. [5] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2023.11.016)
  • [L5] Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been used in clinical practice in orthopaedics and traumatology in accordance with government health regulations, but their application should be guided by the pathophysiology of the target disease and follow regulatory frameworks to ensure safe and effective use. [6] (10.1530/eor-2026-0056)
  • [L5] Interventions employing PRP, MSCs and exosomes are considered in this article. [7] (10.1016/j.reth.2020.07.007)
  • [L5] Repeated intra-articular injections of PRP and ADSCs alleviated inflammation and pain, promoted tissue repair, and modulated immune responses in rats with surgically induced OA. [8] (10.1186/s13018-024-05396-2)
  • [L5] This article provides a synopsis of the research progress and mechanisms of mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes (MSC-Exos) from diverse tissue sources in the treatment of osteoarthritis. [9] (10.1186/s13018-026-06907-z)
  • [L5] The outcome of these approaches is influenced by the methodologies and materials used during the cycle from the isolation of MSCs to their re-implantation. [10] (10.1016/s0020-1383(08)70006-8)
  • [L5] Endogenous MSCs can be pharmacologically mobilized into peripheral blood and recruited to the site of rotator cuff repair via local delivery of MCP-1. [11] (10.1177/03635465251341439)
  • [Paper] Osteogenically pre-differentiated ASCs demonstrated enhanced bone regenerative capacity compared with undifferentiated ASCs. [12] (10.1186/s12891-026-10114-6)
  • [L5] Local delivery of MSC-EVs embedded within an injectable collagen scaffold enhanced tendon regeneration in a rat model of collagenase-induced tendinopathy. [13] (10.1177/03635465261421555)
  • [L2] Spin bias was present in most MSC-related trials for knee osteoarthritis, with a higher frequency among those that utilized adipose-derived MSCs. [14] (10.1177/03635465241274155)
  • [L2] However, the superiority of BMAC over other orthobiologic treatments cannot be assessed given the conflicting results presently available. [15] (10.1186/s13018-025-06509-1)
  • [L1] Treatment with UC-MSCs was shown to be a viable therapeutic option for KOA combined with synovitis, showing clinical improvement at the end of follow-up, especially in those with moderate to severe pain. [16] (10.1186/s12891-025-09440-y)
  • [L5] These findings provide a theoretical rationale and identify promising therapeutic targets for the development of exosome-based therapeutic strategies against OA. [17] (10.1186/s13018-026-06765-9)
  • [L5] Local application of BMAC without appropriate carriers could not enhance bone-tendon interface healing. [18] (10.1177/03635465241313124)
  • [L1] Arthroscopic surgical repair combined with MSC augmentation reported better structural outcomes compared to isolated surgical repair for RCT. [19] (10.1016/j.jseint.2025.03.017)
  • [Paper] These findings demonstrate that certain local anesthetics, corticosteroids, and anticoagulants should be avoided when possible to preserve MSC cell viability for BMAC procedures. [21] (10.1177/2325967126s00427)
  • [Paper] Even in the irrigation fluid, which is normally discarded, cells with the characteristics of stromal stem cells were isolated. [22] (10.1016/s0020-1383(15)30051-6)

References

[1] Cochrane in CORR ®: Stem Cell Injections for Osteoarthritis of the Knee. Clinical Orthopaedics & Related Research. 2025. DOI: 10.1097/corr.0000000000003593

[2] Mesenchymal stem cells injections in traumatology and orthopaedics: common practice or still a promising area with many uncertainties?. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders. 2025. DOI: 10.1186/s12891-025-09123-8

[3] Biological considerations of mesenchymal stem cells and endothelial progenitor cells. Injury. 2008. DOI: 10.1016/s0020-1383(08)70012-3

[4] Days 7 to 14 May Represent an Optimal Window for Stem Cell–Based Treatment in a Rat Model of Anterior Cruciate Ligament Transection–Induced Posttraumatic Osteoarthritis. The American Journal of Sports Medicine. 2025. DOI: 10.1177/03635465251326499

[5] The Role of Exosomes in Upper-Extremity Tissue Regeneration. The Journal of Hand Surgery. 2024. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhsa.2023.11.016

[6] Clinical application of mesenchymal stem cells in orthopaedics and traumatology in daily practice. EFORT Open Reviews. 2026. DOI: 10.1530/eor-2026-0056

[7] Degenerative osteoarthritis a reversible chronic disease. Regenerative Therapy. 2020. DOI: 10.1016/j.reth.2020.07.007

[8] Adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells combined with platelet-rich plasma are superior options for the treatment of osteoarthritis. Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery and Research. 2025. DOI: 10.1186/s13018-024-05396-2

[9] Application of exosomes derived from mesenchymal stem cells in osteoarthritis. Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery and Research. 2026. DOI: 10.1186/s13018-026-06907-z

[10] Mesenchymal stem cell tissue engineering: Techniques for isolation, expansion and application. Injury. 2007. DOI: 10.1016/s0020-1383(08)70006-8

[11] Pharmacologic Mobilization and Chemokine-Directed Recruitment of Mesenchymal Stromal Cells to the Surgically Repaired Rotator Cuff. The American Journal of Sports Medicine. 2025. DOI: 10.1177/03635465251341439

[12] Evaluation of mesenchymal stem cells’ bone repair capacity via osteogenic lineage differentiation in experimental nonunion fractures. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders. 2026. DOI: 10.1186/s12891-026-10114-6

[13] Regenerative Effect of Injectable Collagen Loaded With Mesenchymal Stem Cell–Derived Extracellular Vesicles in a Collagenase-Induced Tendinopathy Rat Model. The American Journal of Sports Medicine. 2026. DOI: 10.1177/03635465261421555

[14] Evaluation of Spin in Clinical Trials of Mesenchymal Stromal Cells for the Treatment of Knee Osteoarthritis: A Systematic Review. The American Journal of Sports Medicine. 2025. DOI: 10.1177/03635465241274155

[15] Progress in the clinical use of bone marrow aspirate concentrate for knee osteoarthritis: an expert opinion. Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery and Research. 2025. DOI: 10.1186/s13018-025-06509-1

[16] Intra-articular injection of umbilical cord–derived mesenchymal stem cells is safe and effective for moderate to severe knee osteoarthritis with synovitis: a double‑blinded and randomized controlled trial. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders. 2025. DOI: 10.1186/s12891-025-09440-y

[17] Mesenchymal stem cell-derived miR-125b-1-3p-abundant exosomes alleviate osteoarthritis by modulating the KDM6B-H3K27me3-FOXM1 axis. Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery and Research. 2026. DOI: 10.1186/s13018-026-06765-9

[18] Bone Marrow Aspirate Concentrate Combined With an Appropriate Carrier Effectively Promotes Bone-Tendon Interface Healing in a Rabbit Model of Chronic Rotator Cuff Tear. The American Journal of Sports Medicine. 2025. DOI: 10.1177/03635465241313124

[19] Combined arthroscopic rotator cuff repair with mesenchymal stem cell augmentation shows similar functional outcomes but a higher structural integrity rate compared with isolated repair: a meta-analysis of comparative studies. JSES International. 2025. DOI: 10.1016/j.jseint.2025.03.017

[21] Poster 123. Characterization of Human Bone Marrow Aspirate Concentrate Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells and the Effect of Commonly Used Clinical Drugs on Their Viability and Proliferation. Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine. 2026. DOI: 10.1177/2325967126s00427

[22] RIA fractions contain mesenchymal stroma cells with high osteogenic potency. Injury. 2015. DOI: 10.1016/s0020-1383(15)30051-6

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