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Cómo sanan las heridas y las cicatrices

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Toda herida, rasguño o incisión quirúrgica cicatriza siguiendo la misma secuencia notable y predecible; todas dejan una cicatriz, ya que la piel cicatrizada se repara, pero no vuelve a crecerse de forma perfecta. Comprender el proceso de cicatrización explica por qué una cicatriz reciente es roja y firme antes de desvanecerse, por qué una herida curada nunca alcanza la misma resistencia que la piel original, y por qué factores como el tabaquismo y la diabetes tienen tanta importancia. En esta página se explica, en lenguaje sencillo, cómo se repara la piel y cómo evolucionan las cicatrices; para quienes deseen profundizar, también se aborda la biología del proceso de reparación y el motivo por el cual las cicatrices se comportan de esa manera.

¿Qué es una herida y cómo cicatriza la piel?

Una herida es, sencillamente, una ruptura en la barrera protectora de la piel. Su cicatrización se produce en etapas superpuestas: primero se detiene el sangrado y se forma un coágulo/costra; luego la zona se inflama (enrojece, se calienta y se hincha ligeramente) a medida que llegan las células encargadas de la limpieza; después el cuerpo rellena el espacio con tejido nuevo y une los bordes de la herida; y, finalmente, a lo largo de varios meses, ese tejido nuevo se reorganiza y fortalece hasta convertirse en una cicatriz.

Una incisión cerrada quirúrgicamente (cuyos bordes se suturan cuidadosamente) cicatriza más rápido y genera una cicatriz más fina que una herida dejada abierta para que se llene desde abajo; no obstante, ambas siguen el mismo proceso básico.

Cómo se forman y maduran las cicatrices

Una cicatriz es el tejido que el cuerpo genera para cerrar una herida. Las cicatrices recientes suelen ser elevadas, firmes, rojas o rosadas, ya que contienen numerosos vasos sanguíneos nuevos y colágeno desorganizado. En los meses o años siguientes, la cicatriz se remodela: los vasos sanguíneos disminuyen y el colágeno se reorganiza, de modo que una cicatriz madura se vuelve más plana, pálida, suave y menos visible. Por eso es importante evaluar una cicatriz al cabo de un año, no a un mes.

Dos verdades ineludibles sobre las cicatrices: nunca recuperan la resistencia total de la piel original (como máximo, alcanzan el 80 %); además, el aspecto final de una cicatriz depende en parte de uno mismo (cuidado de la herida, no fumar) y en parte de factores que no se pueden controlar (genética, tipo de piel, ubicación en el cuerpo y tensión sobre la herida).

Qué favorece una buena cicatrización de la herida

  • Manténgala limpia y protegida, y siga las instrucciones de apósitos/cuidado de la herida; la infección es un factor que puede interrumpir gravemente el proceso de cicatrización.
  • No fume. La nicotina estrecha los vasos sanguíneos y priva a la herida de oxígeno; este es uno de los principales riesgos controlables para que la herida no cicatrice adecuadamente.
  • Aliméntese bien. Una ingesta adecuada de proteínas, vitamina C y zinc, así como un buen control del azúcar en sangre en pacientes diabéticos, proporcionan los componentes necesarios para la cicatrización.
  • Proteja la cicatriz mientras madura: minimice la tensión sobre ella y, durante el primer año, proteja la cicatriz reciente del sol (que podría oscurecerla de forma permanente).

En mayor profundidad

Esta sección ofrece una explicación más detallada, dirigida a estudiantes. No es necesaria para el cuidado de una herida; sin embargo, si le interesa saber cómo se produce la reparación tisular y por qué las cicatrices son como son, siga leyendo.

Las cuatro fases de la cicatrización de heridas

La reparación se desarrolla a través de cuatro fases que se solapan:

  1. Hemostasia (minutos). Los vasos sanguíneos se contraen y se forma un coágulo que tapona la herida y crea un andamio temporal de fibrina.
  2. Inflamación (días). Las células inmunitarias (primero neutrófilos y luego macrófagos) eliminan bacterias y restos, además de liberar señales que atraen a las células reparadoras. Esta es la fase en la que la zona se vuelve roja, hinchada y sensible al tacto.
  3. Proliferación (días a semanas). Los fibroblastos se acumulan y generan nuevo colágeno; brotan nuevos vasos sanguíneos (formando el tejido de granulación de color rosado); las células cutáneas migran hacia la superficie para volver a sellar la herida.
  4. Remodelación (semanas hasta aproximadamente un año). El colágeno formado rápidamente al inicio se descompone y es reemplazado por colágeno más fuerte y mejor organizado; los vasos sanguíneos se reducen y la cicatriz madura.

¿Por qué las cicatrices son más débiles que la piel?

La clave está en el tipo de colágeno. En la fase inicial de reparación se deposita gran cantidad de colágeno de tipo III, el cual se genera rápidamente pero es mecánicamente débil y está desorganizado. Durante el proceso de remodelación, este es reemplazado gradualmente por el colágeno de tipo I, más resistente y bien alineado, además de estar cruzado entre sus fibras. La resistencia a la tracción aumenta en consecuencia: alrededor de la mitad del valor normal a las seis semanas, alcanzando un máximo del 80 % aproximadamente a los tres meses; sin embargo, nunca llega al 100 %. Además, en la cicatriz falta la estructura ordenada de la piel original (así como sus folículos pilosos y glándulas sudoríparas). En resumen, una herida curada constituye un parche fuerte y funcional, pero no un reemplazo perfecto.

Miofibroblastos y contracción de la herida

La miofibroblasto, una célula especializada en la reparación, combina características de fibroblasto y de célula muscular: se adhiere a la matriz de la herida y la contrae físicamente, acercando los bordes de la lesión para reducir el área que debe ser cubierta. Esto resulta beneficioso, pues acelera el cierre de la herida. No obstante, cuando actúa en lugares inadecuados —como en articulaciones o en la palma de la mano—, su excesiva actividad puede provocar una contractura que limita el movimiento; por ello, las heridas y quemaduras que afectan a los pliegues de flexión se tratan con suma precaución.

Cuando la cicatrización sale mal: cicatrices hipertróficas y queloides

En ocasiones, el equilibrio entre la síntesis y la degradación del colágeno se desplaza excesivamente hacia la deposición, dando lugar a una cicatriz excesivamente desarrollada:

  • Una cicatriz hipertrófica es elevada y rojiza, pero permanece dentro de los límites de la herida original; con frecuencia mejora con el tiempo.
  • Un queloide crece más allá de los márgenes de la herida original, comportándose casi como un crecimiento benigno; los queloides son más frecuentes en ciertos tipos de piel y zonas del cuerpo (tórax, hombros, lóbulos de las orejas) y son mucho más difíciles de tratar.

Ambos casos reflejan una respuesta proliferativa exagerada y prolongada: exceso de colágeno y escasa remodelación.

Cicatrización primaria versus secundaria

Los cirujanos distinguen dos vías de cicatrización. La cicatrización por primera intención se da en heridas limpias cuyos bordes se mantienen unidos directamente (una incisión suturada): es rápida y deja una cicatriz delgada. La cicatrización por segunda intención ocurre en heridas que se dejan abiertas (debido a pérdida de tejido o infección); estas se llenan desde la base con tejido de granulación y se cierran por contracción: es un proceso más lento y deja una cicatriz más amplia. La elección entre una u otra vía (así como el momento adecuado para cerrar una herida contaminada) constituye un juicio quirúrgico fundamental.

Qué favorece y qué perjudica la cicatrización

  • El aporte sanguíneo y el oxígeno son esenciales; el tabaquismo, precisamente, los deteriora.
  • La diabetes, una mala nutrición, la edad avanzada y el uso de esteroides o inmunosupresores ralentizan la cicatrización y aumentan el riesgo de infección.
  • La infección detiene el proceso cicatricial en la fase inflamatoria y puede hacer que una herida cerrada se abra de nuevo.
  • La tensión y el movimiento sobre la herida amplían la cicatriz; protegerla y sostenerla favorece un resultado más fino.
  • El tiempo y la protección solar determinan el resultado estético final: una cicatriz vista al cabo de un año se ve mucho mejor que vista al mes.

Véase también


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