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Cómo funcionan y se reparan los músculos

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Esta página se tradujo automáticamente y todavía no la ha revisado un médico. La versión en inglés es la versión oficial.

Los músculos son los “motores” del cuerpo: convierten las instrucciones del cerebro en movimiento y fuerza, y representan gran parte de el peso corporal. A diferencia del cartílago, el músculo posee una verdadera capacidad de reparación e incluso de regeneración, gracias a un reservorio de células madre especializadas. No obstante, esa capacidad de reparación tiene sus límites: una pequeña distensión sana sin problemas, mientras que un desgarro importante o una lesión ignorada durante mucho tiempo suele dejar cicatrices y no recupera su función plena. En esta página se explica, en un lenguaje sencillo, qué son los músculos y cómo se reparan; luego, para quienes deseen profundizar, se detalla cómo se contrae realmente un músculo y por qué algunas lesiones provocan debilidad duradera.

¿Qué es un músculo y cuál es su función?

Un músculo es un conjunto de células largas y filamentosas (fibras musculares) agrupadas como los hilos de una cuerda, y ancladas al hueso mediante tendones. Cuando el cerebro envía una señal a través de un nervio, las fibras musculares se acortan, tirando del tendón y moviendo la articulación. Esa es toda su función: convertir una señal eléctrica y energía química en fuerza de tracción.

Los músculos cuentan con una rica irrigación sanguínea; por eso sangran y presentan hematomas cuando se desgarran, pero también por eso tienen una capacidad de curación mucho mayor que tejidos con escasa irrigación, como el cartílago.

Cómo se recupera el músculo

Tras una distensión o desgarro, el músculo se recupera en varias fases sucesivas:

  1. Sangrado e inflamación (primeros días). La lesión provoca sangrado e hinchazón; entonces intervienen las células encargadas de la limpieza. Esta es la fase dolorosa y con hematomas.
  2. Regeneración (primeras semanas). Las células madre latentes se activan y generan nuevas fibras musculares para cerrar la brecha (se trata de músculo nuevo de verdad, no solo tejido cicatricial).
  3. Remodelación (de semanas a meses). Las nuevas fibras maduran y se reorientan con el uso; la fuerza se recupera gradualmente.

El problema radica en que la regeneración y la formación de cicatriz compiten entre sí. Una lesión pequeña y limpia se regenera bien. En cambio, un desgarro grande genera tejido cicatricial fibroso (y a veces grasa) más rápido de lo que el músculo nuevo puede formarse; este tejido cicatricial es más débil y menos elástico que el músculo. Por eso, los desgarros grandes o aquellos que no se tratan a tiempo pueden dejar una debilidad permanente.

Qué ayuda a la recuperación muscular

  • Movimiento temprano y gradual. El movimiento suave seguido de una carga progresiva guía al músculo recién lesionado para que se reconstruya y se alinee; el reposo completo y prolongado provoca atrofia y rigidez.
  • No exagerar al principio. Someter una lesión reciente a una carga excesiva puede relesionarla y favorecer la formación de cicatrices.
  • Buena salud general. Un aporte adecuado de proteínas, no fumar y un control óptimo de la diabetes contribuyen a la reparación muscular.
  • Tratamiento oportuno de las lesiones graves. Algunas rupturas completas (por ejemplo, ciertas roturas de tendón y músculo) se recuperan mejor si se reparan rápidamente, antes de que el músculo se retraiga y se atrofie.

En mayor profundidad

Esta sección ofrece una explicación más detallada, dirigida a estudiantes. No es necesaria para comprender una lesión muscular; sin embargo, si le interesa saber cómo un músculo genera fuerza y por qué algunas lesiones no se recuperan por completo, siga leyendo.

El músculo como tejido vivo

Un músculo completo está estructurado de forma jerárquica, como un cable compuesto por múltiples cables: el músculo contiene haces (fascículos) de largas fibras musculares; cada fibra es una sola célula grande repleta de miofibrillas en forma de hilos; y cada miofibrilla es una cadena de diminutas unidades contráctiles llamadas sarcómeros. En el sarcómero se genera la fuerza. Se trata de una disposición precisa y repetitiva de dos tipos de filamentos entrelazados: filamentos gruesos formados por una proteína llamada miosina, y filamentos finos de actina.

Cada fibra forma parte de una unidad motora: una célula nerviosa y todas las fibras musculares que esta controla. Los movimientos finos (como los de la mano) requieren unidades motoras pequeñas; los movimientos potentes, unidades motoras grandes. Además, existen distintos tipos de fibras: las de contracción lenta (resistentes a la fatiga, útiles para la resistencia y el mantenimiento de la postura) y las de contracción rápida (muy potentes, pero que se cansan con facilidad).

Cómo se contrae un músculo

La contracción se produce mediante el mecanismo de deslizamiento de filamentos. Cuando una señal nerviosa llega a la unión neuromuscular (la sinapsis donde el nervio se conecta con el músculo; véase cómo funcionan los nervios), se libera una sustancia química que induce a la fibra muscular a generar su propio impulso eléctrico. Ese impulso provoca una afluencia masiva de calcio dentro de la fibra, lo cual deja al descubierto los sitios de unión en los filamentos de actina. A continuación, las cabezas de miosina se enganchan a la actina y la atraen hacia el interior (como un equipo de tira y afloja que tira de una cuerda), de modo que los filamentos gruesos y delgados se deslizan uno respecto al otro y el sarcómero se acorta. Si esto ocurre en miles de millones de sarcómeros, todo el músculo se contrae. Todo este proceso depende del ATP, la moneda energética de la célula; cuando el ATP escasea, el músculo se fatiga.

Cómo se repara el músculo: células satélites frente a cicatriz

El secreto de la reparación muscular radica en las células satélites, unas células madre de reserva situadas junto a cada fibra muscular. Tras una lesión, estas células se activan, se multiplican y se fusionan para formar nuevas fibras musculares. El proceso de curación consta de tres fases: destrucción (sangrado e inflamación), regeneración (las células satélites reconstruyen las fibras) y remodelación (la nueva fibra madura bajo la acción de la carga mecánica).

Sin embargo, la regeneración compite con la fibrosis. Las moléculas inflamatorias y de señalización, especialmente una llamada TGF-β1, inducen a los fibroblastos a depositar colágeno y formar cicatriz. En lesiones leves, la regeneración prevalece; en lesiones graves o en aquellas que se repiten, la cicatriz (y a veces tejido adiposo) se impone, dando lugar a una zona mecánicamente inferior al músculo verdadero. Por eso las lesiones musculares graves no se recuperan por completo.

Infiltración grasa y el manguito rotador

Una manifestación clínicamente importante de este fenómeno se observa en el manguito rotador del hombro. Cuando un tendón del manguito se desgarra y no se trata, el músculo adyacente se retrae lentamente, se atrofia y es reemplazado por grasa (infiltración grasa). Este cambio atrófico y graso es en gran medida irreversible, incluso si posteriormente se repara el tendón; un músculo ya degenerado nunca recuperará por completo su fuerza. Este es uno de los motivos principales por los que los cirujanos prestan atención al momento en que se realizan ciertas reparaciones tendinosas: intervenir antes de que el músculo se degrade produce resultados mucho mejores.

Úsalo o pérdelo: atrofia y adaptación

El músculo se adapta constantemente a la demanda. Si se somete a carga de forma progresiva, hipertrofia: las fibras aumentan de tamaño y se fortalecen (las células satélites aportan núcleos para sustentar dichas fibras más grandes). En cambio, si se le quita la carga (reposo en cama, inmovilización con escayola o lesión nerviosa), atrofia rápidamente, perdiendo tamaño y fuerza en cuestión de semanas. El músculo desconectado de su nervio (denervación) es el que más rápido se deteriora; si el nervio no se recupera a tiempo, el músculo termina siendo reemplazado por grasa y tejido fibroso. Por eso la rehabilitación y el mantener los músculos activos durante la recuperación son tan importantes.

Qué favorece y qué perjudica la cicatrización muscular

  • La carga gradual es el estímulo clave para la regeneración y el realineamiento muscular; aplicar demasiada carga demasiado pronto provoca nuevas roturas y cicatrización.
  • El aporte sanguíneo es abundante en el músculo, por lo que este sana mejor que el cartílago o las partes internas de los tendones.
  • El tabaquismo, la diabetes, el envejecimiento y los corticoides dificultan la reparación y aceleran la atrofia muscular.
  • El tiempo transcurrido y el tamaño de la lesión determinan el límite de recuperación: las distensiones leves se recuperan por completo; las roturas grandes y el músculo degenerado no.

Véase también


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