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Neck of femur fracture

128 citationsUpdated Sep 2026

Overview

Femoral neck fractures must be managed as complex injuries rather than isolated mechanical fixation problems, necessitating consideration of impaired bone density and poor general health [3]. While assessment of clinically relevant outcomes in the young patient literature remains limited, making evidence-based guidance challenging [1], observed excellent functional outcomes at mid-term follow-up support joint-preserving strategies in non-geriatric populations [2]. Standardization toward optimal outcomes is required, particularly given that low rates of osteoporotic pharmacotherapy persist despite established guidelines [10, 7]. For patients aged over 90 years, arthroplasty is more likely to improve long-term survival than nonoperative treatment [13]. Although total hip arthroplasty offers advantages, femoral neck fractures remain a major risk factor for long-term complications [15]. Patients can be reassured that care for geriatric femoral neck fractures yields comparable outcomes [62].

Surgical timing and technique are critical determinants of success. Displaced femoral neck fractures require urgent treatment to prevent osteonecrosis and improve functional outcome [30]. The necessity for dipyridamole-thallium scanning in elderly patients should be re-evaluated, as it increases the delay until surgery [35]. The potential advantages of the posterior approach have not been demonstrated, and its continued use is advised against [36]. Internal fixation remains the standard of care for nondisplaced femoral neck fractures in the elderly, though notable rates of revision surgery and complications have been documented [39]. Primary operative stabilization of undisplaced femoral neck fractures is recommended [74]. In frail patients with nondisplaced fractures, hip arthroplasty is a reasonable option to potentially decrease reoperations compared to internal fixation [63].

Outcomes are significantly influenced by patient-related factors and the quality of fracture reduction, which is associated with a lower reoperation risk [67]. Excessive femoral neck collapse of more than 15 mm increases the risk of healing complications and functional loss [6]. There is no justification for using more than three pin or screw implants, as increasing the number did not significantly improve stability [70]. For displaced fractures treated with internal fixation, patient selection is essential [71]. Non-randomized studies have provided results dissimilar to randomized trials regarding mortality and revision rates for arthroplasty versus internal fixation [73]. In young patients (≤65 years), selective use of cementless femoral fixation did not increase the risk of revision or reoperation at 10 years compared to cemented fixation [142]. The DEFENDD trial will provide high-level evidence on favorable implants for young patients [52], addressing considerable controversy in the literature regarding optimal surgical implants [144]. Autologous bone cylinder transplantation with cannulated screw re-stabilisation is an alternative for selected young patients with delayed fracture healing [22].

Anatomy & Pathophysiology

Bony Anatomy

The hip is a multiaxial joint formed by the articulation between the pelvis and femur, connecting the axial skeleton and the lower extremity [85]. The hemipelvis comprises three bones—the ilium, ischium, and pubis—which unite at the triradiate cartilage within the concave acetabulum [85]. The acetabulum consists of an articular crescent-moon–shaped lunate surface and a nonarticular central fossa that serves as the attachment point for the ligamentum teres [85]. The femoral head forms two-thirds of a sphere, with a small depression at its center from which the ligamentum teres extends to connect to the acetabular notch [85].

The neck-shaft angle of the femur averages 125° [85], with a mean adult value of 130° ± 7° [95]. Other measurements report the angle averaging 127 degrees, beginning at 141 degrees in the fetus [91]. Normal version, defined as the head-neck angle in the frontal plane, averages 15 to 20° [85]. The mean anteversion of the femoral neck is 10° ± 7° [95], while the femoral neck is normally anteverted approximately 14 degrees in relation to femoral condyles, with a range of 1–40 degrees [91]. The acetabulum is normally anteverted 15 degrees and obliquely oriented in the coronal plane 45 degrees caudally [91].

The weakest area in the femoral neck is located in the Ward triangle [95]. The calcar femorale is a medial area of dense trabecular bone that transfers stress from the femoral shaft to the inferior portion of the femoral neck [95]. Fractures of the proximal femur follow the path of least resistance, and the amount of energy absorbed by the bone determines the degree of comminution [95]. The two prime trabecular groups of the proximal femur are the principal tensile group and the principal compressive group, with secondary compressive and tensile trabecular groups also existing [95]. Trabecular bone patterns in the proximal femur are the result of bone’s response to stress, expressed as Wolff’s law [95].

Ligaments and Capsule

The hip is surrounded by a dense fibrous capsule extending from the periphery of the acetabulum to the intertrochanteric line of the femoral neck [85]. The hip capsule attaches anteriorly and posteriorly along the periphery of the acetabulum outside the labrum [86]. On the femur, the capsule attaches anteriorly along the intertrochanteric crest [86]. On the posterior side, the hip capsule attaches only partially, such that the basicervical region of the femoral neck and the intertrochanteric region of the femur are not intracapsular [86]. The capsule is tight in extension and internal rotation, and relaxed in flexion and external rotation [82].

The iliofemoral ligament, also known as the Y ligament of Bigelow, originates at the AIIS and inserts at the intertrochanteric line [86]. It is the thickest and strongest of the three main ligaments supporting the hip [85]. The iliofemoral ligament becomes taut in full extension, preventing anterior dislocation and hyperextension of the hip [86], and functions to limit external rotation [85]. In isolation, the lateral arm of the iliofemoral ligament limits extension of the joint [85].

The pubofemoral ligament attaches to the inferior and medial part of the capsule [86], extending from the obturator crest of the pubic bone to the femoral neck to act as a limit to abduction of the joint [85]. The ischiofemoral ligament reinforces the posterior capsule and provides a check to internal rotation of the hip [86], extending from the ischial margin of the acetabulum to the greater trochanter of the femur to restrict internal rotation motion [85]. The twisted orientation of the hip ligaments provides a screw mechanism for the hip in full extension [86]. Deep fibers from all three hip ligaments merge to form the zona orbicularis, which circumvents the femoral neck [85]. The ligamentum teres originates in the cotyloid fossa and attaches on the fovea of the femoral head [86].

Vascular Anatomy

The medial femoral circumflex artery is the main blood supply to the femoral head [95], terminating in the posterior aspect of the extracapsular arterial ring [95]. The lateral femoral circumflex artery gives rise to the anterior aspect of the arterial ring, while the superior and inferior gluteal arteries also contribute branches to the extracapsular arterial ring [95]. The ascending cervical arteries originate from this ring and are divided into four distinct groups based on their anatomic relationship to the femoral neck: lateral, medial, posterior, and anterior [95]. The lateral group of ascending branches is the main blood supply to the femoral head [95].

The ascending branches give off multiple perforator vessels to the femoral neck and terminate in the subsynovial arterial ring located at the margin of the articular surface of the femoral head [95]. The lateral epiphyseal artery penetrates the femoral head and is believed to be the dominant blood supply to the femoral head from this system [95]. In adulthood, the major blood supply to the femoral head is from the medial femoral circumflex and lateral epiphyseal arteries [99]. From the age of 4 years to adulthood, the posterosuperior and posteroinferior retinacular arteries (from the medial circumflex artery) are the major blood supply to the femoral head [99]. The ligamentum teres transmits an arterial branch of the posterior division of the obturator artery to the femoral head, which is less significant in adults [82]. The artery of the ligamentum teres arises from either the obturator or medial femoral circumflex artery but does not provide sufficient blood supply to maintain the viability of the femoral head [95].

Pathophysiology of Fracture Healing

Femoral neck fractures are considered intracapsular fractures, which are at higher risk of nonunion [95]. Because of the absence of a periosteal or extraosseous blood supply, no callus forms during healing of femoral neck fractures [95]. The intracapsular portion of the femoral neck has essentially no cambium layer in its fibrous covering to participate in external callus formation [65]. Consequently, fracture healing occurs by intraosseous bone healing [95].

The viability of the femoral head after a femoral neck fracture is dependent on preservation of the remaining vascular supply and on revascularization and repair of the necrotic areas before collapse of the necrotic bone segment can occur [65]. To preserve the remaining blood supply to the displaced femoral head, accurate reduction and stable fixation is critical in any attempt to salvage the femoral head [65]. An important source of revascularization is the vascular ingrowth across the uniting fracture line [65]. Transverse shear and rotational interfragmentary movement caused by poor fracture stabilization are deleterious to revascularization as they disrupt angiogenesis in the femoral head [65]. Fractures that disrupt the ascending blood flow to the lateral epiphyseal vessel have an increased risk of osteonecrosis [95].

Decreased or absent vascularity of the femoral head is seen in approximately 75% of femoral neck fractures, with 80% of femoral heads with initial vascular compromise seeming to regain blood flow within six weeks [65]. The (re)vascularization of the femoral head is further compromised when using implants with larger volumes, as this may increase the incidence of avascular necrosis [65]. A significant dependence on pressure values for hip joint position was demonstrated for the development of femoral head necrosis following intracapsular femoral neck fractures, with the highest values found in extension and internal rotation [162].

Femoral neck fractures in physiologically young patients typically occur from high-energy axial loading forces through the thigh with the hip in an abducted position [75]. High-energy femoral neck fractures have a high rate of associated head, chest, abdominal, and musculoskeletal injuries [75]. Treatment failure is frequently seen after femoral neck fractures, including nonunion, failed fixation, osteonecrosis, and malunion [19]. Understanding and addressing the pathoanatomy of vertical femoral neck fractures is mandatory to minimize risks for treatment failure [19]. Quality reduction and stable fixation for femoral neck fractures are vital elements in managing these at-risk fractures [19].

Irreducible femoral neck fractures are defined as those with great difficulty in achieving anatomical reduction after routine closed reduction, such as the Whitman manoeuvre or Leadbetter manoeuvre, with the patient under general anaesthesia [76]. One mechanism for irreducible femoral neck fractures is the proximal fragment disconnecting entirely from the distal femur as a 'floating' femoral head [76]. Another mechanism is the proximal segment impacting into the distal part after rotation and moving along with the distal part as one unit [76]. The detachment of the proximal segment from the capsule, commonly seen in subcapital femoral neck fractures, can lead to the uncontrolled rolling motion of the proximal segment within the capsule, making it very difficult to obtain anatomic reduction [76].

Classification

Reliability and Validity of Classification Systems

The Garden classification remains the most commonly used system for femoral neck fractures despite poor interobserver reliability [105]. A simplified two-category system dividing femoral neck fractures into displaced and nondisplaced categories demonstrates better reliability than the four-stage Garden classification [105]. Better reliability is found when classifying femoral neck fractures simply as 'non-displaced' or 'displaced' [123].

Quantitative analysis reveals that the AO classification for intracapsular femoral neck fractures shows an overall agreement of 0.22, classified as fair agreement [175]. The four-stage Garden classification exhibits an overall reliability of 0.33, also classified as fair agreement [175]. In contrast, the simple II stage classification provides the highest reliability estimates, ranging from 0.35 (fair agreement) to 0.83 (almost perfect agreement) [175]. Multi-rater agreement for the simple II stage classification is 0.50, classified as moderate agreement [175]. Consequently, the four-stage Garden and AO classifications should be avoided in clinical use due to poor reproducibility [175]. Only the simple II stage classification showed sufficient intra- and interobserver reliability among the systems tested [175].

Epidemiology and Prevalence

The most reproducible classification system divides cervical hip fractures into undisplaced (33%) and displaced (67%) [96]. The incidence of femoral neck fractures rises from 0.43/10^3 population among those less than 60 years old to over 20/10^5 among those over 90 [33].

Specific Classification Schemes and Definitions

Garden: An undisplaced intracapsular fracture is defined as Garden Grade I and Grade II fractures [55]. Garden Type I is defined as an incomplete fracture [190]. Garden Type II is defined as a complete fracture without displacement [190]. Garden Type III is defined as a fracture with partial displacement, abduction of the femoral head, mild external rotation, and upward displacement of the femoral neck segment [190]. Garden Type IV is defined as a complete displacement of the femoral neck, being significantly externally rotated and upward [190].

AO/OTA: Garden Grade II fractures correspond to AO Type 31.B1.3 and are completely undisplaced [55]. Garden Grade I fractures correspond to AO Types 31.B1.1 and B1.2 and are impacted into any degree of valgus [55]. Undisplaced intracapsular fractures also include AO types 31.B1.1, B1.2, and B1.3 [55].

Modified Pauwels: In a cohort of 209 patients with femoral neck fractures treated with cannulated screws, the modified Pauwels classification identified 37 patients in type I, 106 in type II, and 66 in type III [189]. Among patients classified by modified Pauwels type, the proportion of displaced fractures was 27% in Type I, 58% in Type II, and 82% in Type III [189].

Morphology and Complexity

Femoral neck fractures in young and middle-aged adults exhibit morphological diversity and complexity [77]. The biomechanical and clinical dominance of positive buttress correlates with Pauwels type, being biomechanically stable in Pauwels types I and II but not advantageous in type III [80].

Other Considerations

Spontaneous femoral neck fracture exhibits internal heterogeneity based on its different causes [34]. A proposed novel classification for femoral neck fracture combined with anterior dislocation of the femoral head is based on the mechanism of injury and the direction of dislocation [79].

Clinical Presentation

History and Mechanism

Most patients with femoral neck fractures report a history of a traumatic event, with the exception of those who have stress fractures [113]. In patients aged 60 years or younger, these injuries are typically caused by high-energy trauma mechanisms [16]. Young patients sustaining high-energy femoral neck fractures often have associated injuries, including head injuries, which may prevent them from providing a history [113]. The incidence of femoral neck fractures rises from 0.43/10^3 population among those less than 60 years old to over 20/10^5 among those over 90 [33]. Patients between 55 and 70 years with displaced femoral neck fractures are epidemiologically similar to older patients with femoral neck fractures [18]. In pediatric patients, the injury mechanism and fracture characteristics of femoral neck fractures have age-related distributions [118].

Physical Examination

The physical examination for a femoral neck fracture typically reveals an extremity that is shortened and externally rotated [113]. Factors associated with frailty, such as visual impairment, gait problems, deficiencies of proprioception and balance, and osteoporosis, make patients particularly prone to falls and low-energy fractures [106]. The "Chin-on-Chest in Neck of Femur Fracture" (COCNOF) sign is a radiographic predictor of frailty and mortality in hip fracture patients [106].

Diagnostic Challenges

Undisplaced femoral neck fractures can be difficult to diagnose [11]. The index of suspicion for a femoral neck fracture must be extremely high because the consequences of a missed femoral neck fracture can be disastrous [113]. In a cohort of 1,108 consecutive patients, 154 patients experienced a delay of 24 hours or more from the onset of symptoms to diagnosis [24]. In 63 of the 154 cases with delayed diagnosis, the reason was that the patient did not seek medical assistance [24]. In 36 of the 154 cases with delayed diagnosis, the reason was delay in referral by the general practitioner [24]. In 23 of the 154 cases with delayed diagnosis, the reason was failure to establish the diagnosis in the Accident and Emergency department [24]. In 32 of the 154 cases with delayed diagnosis, the reason was other hospital medical staff [24].

Of 91 patients seen by a doctor, 60 did not have X-rays taken in the first 24 hours [24]. Of the 31 patients for whom X-rays were taken during the delay period, 9 had initial X-rays considered completely normal upon review [24]. Of the 9 patients with initially normal X-rays, 6 had a fracture that displaced before diagnosis [24]. Of the 9 patients with initially normal X-rays, 1 had the fracture confirmed by isotope bone scan [24]. Of the 9 patients with initially normal X-rays, 2 had the fracture confirmed by repeat X-rays before any fracture displacement occurred [24]. Of the remaining 21 patients who were X-rayed, the fracture was judged to be visible in all cases on the first radiograph [24]. In 3 of the 21 cases where the fracture was visible on the first radiograph, it was felt to be barely visible, necessitating additional investigations [24].

Most ipsilateral femoral neck and shaft fractures are diagnosed during the evaluation of the injured patient [25]. Encountering a high-energy comminuted midshaft femoral fracture should occasion vigilance for an associated femoral neck fracture [25]. The presence of an ipsilateral knee injury should alert the treating physician to search for a femoral neck fracture [25]. Due to the natural anteversion of the femoral neck, a full profile of the neck requires internal rotation of the leg [25]. In the presence of a shaft fracture, internal rotation is often impossible, which may account for the initial failure to recognize some nondisplaced neck fractures [25]. Despite attentive pursuit, ipsilateral neck fractures will occasionally be missed during the early evaluation [25]. If a patient has persistent complaints of ipsilateral hip pain after treatment of a shaft fracture, the hip should be further evaluated [25]. Failure to detect and appropriately treat an acetabular fracture may lead to significant complications such as femoral neck fracture [49]. The identification of a pre-existing fractured neck of femur will greatly alter the surgical management of the patient, especially with regard to the type of fixation device to be used [50].

Imaging

Standard anteroposterior pelvic and cross-table lateral views of the hip are necessary for diagnosing femoral neck fractures [113]. A traction internal rotation view is often helpful in diagnosing femoral neck fractures [113]. The cross-table lateral view is probably essential in enabling prediction of failure with fixation in Garden I and II femoral neck fractures [113]. The entire femur should be imaged when evaluating for femoral neck fractures [113]. MRI has become the imaging study of choice to evaluate occult femoral neck fractures [113]. CT scans can yield useful information regarding the degree of comminution in femoral neck fractures [113]. When there is a high index of suspicion for an ipsilateral femoral neck fracture, AP and lateral views of the hip and a computed tomographic scan of the proximal femur or intraoperative fluoroscopy should be obtained before initiation of surgical treatment [25]. With intraoperative fluoroscopy, the x-ray beam can be angled to visualize the femoral neck in profile without the need to physically manipulate the thigh [25]. The femoral neck should always be visualized in the operating room before treating a shaft fracture [25]. There were no cases of missed or delayed femoral neck fractures in patients with high-energy femoral shaft fractures who had a negative MRI [51]. Bone scintigrams during the first 6 months after operation do not reliably predict failure of internal fixation of fractures of the neck of the femur [32].

Classification and Radiographic Features

Garden Grade I fractures are impacted into any degree of valgus [55]. Garden Grade II fractures are completely undisplaced [55]. Diagnostic criteria for Garden III femoral neck fractures include a complete fracture of the femoral neck with partial displacement, internal rotation of the fractured femoral head, mild upward and external rotation of the femoral neck, and discontinuity of trabecular lines between the intra-articular pressure bone of the femoral head and the acetabulum [116]. This review illustrated previously undescribed appearances following intracapsular femoral neck fractures, demonstrating that all theoretical outcomes are possible [28].

Complications and Prognostic Factors

Subsequent fractures, including second hip fractures, occurred frequently and early following an index femoral neck fracture in 2 large global cohorts [4]. Treatment failure is frequently seen after femoral neck fractures in young adults, including nonunion, failed fixation, osteonecrosis, and malunion [19]. Femoral neck insufficiency fractures occurred in 1.9% of cases following arthroscopic femoral neck osteochondroplasty for femoroacetabular impingement [126]. Significant new pain after recovery alerts surgeons to the complication of femoral neck insufficiency fracture following arthroscopic femoral neck osteochondroplasty [126]. The incidence of femoral neck fracture is 1.5% in unilateral hip resurfacing procedures [124]. The incidence of femoral neck fracture is 11% in bilateral simultaneous hip resurfacing procedures [124]. Risk factors for subcapital femoral neck fracture following successful trochanteric fracture treatment include being of advanced age, female, osteoporotic bones, having a small femoral head and neck, and having a basicervical type of primary fracture [17]. A high grade of osteoporosis is the most important predisposing factor in the spontaneous development of a subcapital femoral neck fracture after a healed intertrochanteric hip fracture [31]. Patients with a femoral neck fracture exhibit marked osteopenia irrespective of treatment [57]. Hip function in patients with femoral neck fracture surgery delayed over 21 days recovered more slowly than that in those who underwent surgery within 7 days [21].

Investigations

Plain radiography: Conventional radiographs remain critical in the initial imaging evaluation of the hip [42]. A complete hip series usually consists of an anterior-posterior (AP) pelvis, a centered AP hip, a lateral view (frog-leg, cross-table, Dunn 45° or 90°), and a false-profile (Lequesne) view [42]. An anteroposterior radiograph of the pelvis is essential in all femur fractures to avoid missing associated femoral neck fractures [177]. The modified lateral view can obtain a standard sagittal image of the femoral neck, clearly showing dislocation and angulation of sagittal femoral neck fractures, and improve diagnostic accuracy [197].

Undisplaced femoral neck fractures can be difficult to diagnose on radiographs [11]. In a study of 1108 consecutive patients with fractured neck of femur, 154 patients experienced a delay of 24 hours or more from symptom onset to diagnosis [24]. Of the 91 patients seen by a doctor in the delayed diagnosis cohort, 60 did not have X-rays taken in the first 24 hours [24]. In a review of initial X-rays for 31 patients with delayed diagnosis, 9 patients had radiographs considered completely normal despite having a hip fracture [24]. Of the 9 patients with initially normal X-rays, 6 had a fracture that displaced before diagnosis, 1 was confirmed by isotope bone scan, and 2 were confirmed by repeat X-rays before displacement [24].

Preoperative radiographic signs evaluated in displaced femoral neck fractures do not reliably determine whether to treat with prosthesis or internal fixation [205]. There is no significant association between posterior multifragmentation of the femoral neck observed on preoperative radiography and the later development of fracture healing complications [217].

CT: CT scans are effective for examining cortical and cancellous bone and can be used to create three-dimensional reconstructions of the hip for use in surgical planning [103]. CT overcomes the limitations of radiography by providing three-dimensional assessment of bony morphology [87]. CT is helpful in fracture evaluation, particularly in the setting of negative radiographs, or for further defining fracture morphology in patients requiring surgical reduction [87]. However, CT scan does not bear sufficient sensitivity to detect all occult hip fractures [196]. Advanced imaging of Garden I/II femoral neck fractures objectively increases the number of fractures considered too unstable for internal fixation [194]. Routine additional methods of image investigation of femoral neck fractures may be unnecessary for diaphyseal fractures type A1 and A2 [143]. The use of the CT capsular sign with lipohemarthrosis as a selective indicator for preoperative hip MRI or prophylactic femoral neck fixation is effective for preventing unplanned surgery due to delayed diagnosis of occult ipsilateral femoral neck fractures in patients with high-energy femoral shaft fractures [215].

MRI: MRI is the modality of choice for patients suspected of soft tissue or intra-articular pathology, given its superior sensitivity and specificity [103]. MRI is more sensitive than bone scan for ruling out occult nondisplaced stress fractures if the injury is less than 24 hours old [100]. MRI diagnosed occult femoral neck fractures not found on 12% of thin cut CT scans [47]. There were no cases of missed or delayed femoral neck fractures in patients with a negative MRI following a novel protocol for high-energy femoral shaft fractures [51]. A multicenter cohort study identified a subgroup of elderly patients with MRI-verified Garden I and II femoral neck fractures sustained after trauma, i.e., occult fractures [214].

Bone scan: Early scintigraphic patterns after osteosynthesis of femoral neck fractures have to be validated with care [173]. Scintimetry is a useful tool in predicting poor outcome due to femoral head necrosis and/or non-union in the treatment of intracapsular hip fractures [219].

Other Considerations: The complexity of the hip and pelvic region can make accurate diagnosis of painful conditions difficult, requiring a thorough understanding of normal anatomy and biomechanics [41]. Findings from imaging studies should complement clinical examination findings to provide the most accurate diagnosis [41]. Ultrasonography cannot image inside bone because bone cortex reflects almost all sound waves [110]. Internal joint structures are not well visualized by ultrasonography unless they are in a superficial location [110]. Objective sound wave analysis may be used as a diagnostic test or screening tool in the assessment of occult hip fractures and could serve as a substitute for MRI scans [213].

Treatment

General Principles and Outcomes

Management of femoral neck fractures in young adults remains a significant challenge for practicing orthopaedic surgeons [14]. The cornerstone of treatment in the non-elderly population is anatomical reduction and stable internal fixation to salvage the femoral head [139]. While patients treated with internal fixation achieve good functional outcomes, the majority do not regain their pre-fracture health-related quality of life at 24-month follow-up [26]. In patients fifty years old or younger, treatment yields very good results overall, and the occurrence of osteonecrosis does not necessarily result in an unsatisfactory outcome [38]. Internal fixation remains a simple and safe method for both undisplaced and displaced femoral neck fractures in middle-aged patients [64].

Young and Non-Geriatric Patients

Indications: The younger patient age and increased functional demands for work and recreational activities mandate a surgical treatment that preserves the native hip [16]. Displaced femoral neck fractures should be treated on an urgent basis to prevent osteonecrosis and improve functional outcome [30]. Prompt recognition and treatment are crucial for high-energy femoral neck fractures, which are often associated with complications such as osteonecrosis, fixation failure, and nonunion [75].

Surgical Approach / Technique: Understanding and addressing the pathoanatomy of vertical femoral neck fractures is mandatory to minimize risks for treatment failure, making preoperative planning critical [19]. After adequate resuscitation, goals of treatment for high-energy femoral neck fractures include anatomic reduction and stable fixation while maintaining vascularity of the femoral head [75]. High-energy hip fractures have a high rate of associated head, chest, abdominal, and musculoskeletal injuries [75]. For closed reduction and fixation of displaced femoral neck fractures in young adults, an inferior cortical buttress reduction pattern, though non-anatomic, can produce sustainable fracture stability and predictable clinical outcomes [171]. In patients aged 65 years or younger, internal fixation after reduction for severe valgus-impacted femoral neck fractures is safe and effective for achieving successful bone union and restoring the femoral neck length [128].

Implant Selection: The femoral neck system (FNS) has excellent biomechanical properties and shows significantly higher overall construct stability compared to cannulated compression screws [20]. In the management of Pauwels type III femoral neck fractures in young patients, FNS demonstrates clinical efficacy comparable to cannulated compression screws [48]. The femoral neck system alone or combined with a cannulated screw demonstrated better short-term efficacy in the treatment of femoral neck fractures [53]. For young and middle-aged patients with femoral neck fractures, both FNS and cannulated screws combined with a medial plate are effective [122]. FNS presented satisfactory outcomes with a significantly lower complication rate, therefore, can be one of the alternatives for internal implantation devices in treatment of femoral neck fracture in non-geriatric population [131]. DCS and MCS demonstrated effectiveness in treating femoral neck fractures in young adults [111]. Patients receiving the combination strategy of fibula allograft with cannulated screw fixation have faster and high-quality functional recovery after femoral neck fractures and a lower incidence rate of postoperative complications [125]. Cannulated screws with deep circumflex iliac artery-bone grafting is a feasible and effective method in the treatment of young adult patients with femoral neck fracture [23].

Other Considerations: Femoral shortening does not impair functional outcome after internal fixation of femoral neck fractures in non-geriatric patients [2]. FAI may be a less common but potential cause of delayed union or non-union in the setting of femoral neck fracture in the young [5]. The viability of the femoral head after femoral neck fracture is dependent on preservation of the remaining vascular supply and on revascularization and repair of the necrotic areas before collapse of the necrotic bone segment can occur [65]. The transverse shear and the rotational interfragmentary movement caused by poor fracture stabilization are deleterious to revascularization as they disrupt angiogenesis in the femoral head [65]. Decreased or absent vascularity of the femoral head is seen in approximately 75% of femoral neck fractures, whereas 80% of femoral heads with initial vascular compromise seem to regain blood flow within six weeks [65]. Bone healing of femoral neck fractures is determined by the anatomical fact that the intracapsular portion of the neck has essentially no cambium layer in its fibrous covering to participate in external callus formation [65].

Revision: Valgus osteotomy is a good option for non-union of neck of femur in young adults [176]. Valgus intertrochanteric osteotomy and fibular strut graft is recommended for neglected femoral neck fractures [134]. Total hip arthroplasty after failed internal fixation of femoral neck fracture is a well tolerated and effective procedure in older and younger patients [127].

Irreducible Fractures: One mechanism for irreducible femoral neck fractures is when the proximal fragment disconnects entirely from the distal femur as a 'floating' femoral head, making the alignment of the distal to proximal femur difficult [76]. Another mechanism for irreducible femoral neck fractures is when the proximal segment impacts into the distal part after rotation and moves along with the distal part as one unit [76]. The detachment of the proximal segment from the capsule can lead to the uncontrolled rolling motion of the proximal segment within the capsule, which will make it very difficult to obtain anatomic reduction [76]. By protecting the MCFA and its retinacular vessels adjacent to the posterosuperior femoral neck, a safe and complete dislocation of the femoral head is possible without the risk of avascular necrosis [157]. Knowledge of the topographic anatomy, the anatomical course of the MCFA, and the importance of an intact obturator externus muscle, are absolutely critical in the intraoperative decision-making for preservation of the native femoral head [157]. Closed reduction for femoral neck fracture with hip dislocation may be proved to be very harmful and these manoeuvres are hard to control [157]. Such manipulation could create additional damage to the frail bridge of preserved retinacular vessels thereby causing definite devascularization [157].

Elderly and Geriatric Patients

Non-Operative: Non-operative management appears to remain a viable treatment option for non-osteoporotic patients with Garden I femoral neck fractures with a risk of secondary displacement close to 10% [108]. The study concludes that non-operative treatment of impacted femoral neck fractures is justified for most patients, sparing 69% an unnecessary operation [137]. However, nonoperative management means that an elderly patient, often with significant medical comorbidities, is confined to bed for 4 to 6 weeks [117]. Nonoperative management is associated with a higher mortality rate [117]. In undisplaced intracapsular femoral neck fractures, there is a higher prevalence of nonunion, avascular necrosis, and fracture displacement in nonoperatively treated fractures [117].

Operative: The authors recommend primary operative stabilization of undisplaced femoral neck fractures [74]. Surgery to treat undisplaced femoral neck fractures was associated with a higher union rate and a tendency toward less avascular necrosis than conservative treatment [160]. Reoperation was not infrequent following internal fixation of apparently non-displaced femoral neck fractures in elderly patients [40]. The risk of reoperation and mortality following the treatment of nondisplaced femoral neck fractures in the elderly with internal fixation exceeds 14% [161].

Implant Selection: Pre-existing osteoarthritis is not a contraindication to hemiarthroplasty in elderly patients with femoral neck fracture [129]. Providers may choose the method of arthroplasty stem fixation for the treatment of femoral neck fracture based on what they deem most appropriate for the specific patient [141].

Other Considerations: The clinical indications for implant removal in healed pertrochanteric fractures are not well established and should be restricted to specific cases [130].

Complications

Young Patients (≤60 years)

Femoral neck fractures in young adults are devastating injuries characterized by high-energy trauma mechanisms and displaced fracture patterns [12, 16]. The literature lacks assessment of clinically relevant outcomes, which complicates the use of evidence to guide clinical practice [1]. However, the frequency of failure following these fractures does not appear to differ between persons under or over the age of 50 years [9]. Femoroacetabular impingement may be a less common but potential cause of delayed union or non-union in this demographic [5]. Regarding surgical outcomes, femoral neck system (FNS) and cemented sliding hip screw (CSMP) demonstrated similar long-term functional outcomes and complication rates in young patients with Pauwels type III femoral neck fractures [66]. Osteosynthesis using the femoral neck system showed favorable clinical outcomes, with no specific hardware-related complications reported during follow-up [68].

Elderly Patients (>60 years)

Femoral neck fractures remain a major risk factor for long-term complications despite the advantages of total hip arthroplasty (THA) [15]. Several baseline factors are associated with lower health-related quality of life, hip function, and utility after the injury [8]. In a seventeen-year follow-up of healthy, elderly patients with displaced femoral neck fractures, total hip replacement provided better hip function and significantly fewer reoperations compared with internal fixation without increasing mortality [61]. Approximately 1 in 6 patients live at least 10 years following a hip fracture [29]. Poor results of functional treatment for Garden-1 femoral neck fracture were observed in dependent patients [138]. Patients sustaining a distal femoral fracture share a similar adverse event profile with those sustaining a femoral neck fracture [60].

Fracture Healing and Structural Complications

Collapse of the femoral neck after an intracapsular hip fracture has a detrimental effect on outcome [69]. Risk factors for a subcapital femoral neck fracture following successful trochanteric fracture treatment include being of advanced age, female, osteoporotic bones, having a small femoral head and neck, and having a basicervical type of primary fracture [17].

Diagnostic and Timing Factors

In a cohort of 154 patients with fractured neck of femur, a delay of 24 hours or more from symptom onset to diagnosis was recorded [24]. The reasons for this delay included the patient not seeking medical assistance in 63 cases (40.9 per cent), delay in referral by the general practitioner in 36 cases (23.3 per cent), failure to establish the diagnosis in the Accident and Emergency (A&E) department in 23 cases (14.9 per cent), and other hospital medical staff in 32 cases (20.8 per cent) [24]. Among the 91 patients seen by a doctor, 60 did not have X-rays in the first 24 hours [24]. Of the 31 patients for whom X-rays were taken, one had original X-rays that could not be found for review, and nine had initial X-rays considered completely normal upon review after diagnosis [24].

Other Considerations

Patients between 55 and 70 years with displaced femoral neck fractures are epidemiologically similar to older patients with femoral neck fractures [18].

Recovery

Other Considerations: Abnormal radiographs do not change the treatment course in the presence of a normal history and physical examination [222]. The majority of patients treated with specific techniques for delayed fracture healing of the femoral neck were managed successfully, indicating that this technique should be considered as an alternative treatment option for selected young patients [22]. Authors have achieved an early complications rate of less than 6% by acquiring many years of experience and by modifying the method to suit the individual patient and fracture [220].

Risk factors for secondary fracture complications include being of advanced age, female, osteoporotic bones, having a small femoral head and neck, and having a basicervical type of primary fracture [17]. Median survival in male fracture patients was reduced from 5.2 years in age-matched controls to 1.6 years, and for female subjects from 6.6 to 2.8 years [221]. This suggests that this patient group is epidemiologically similar to older patients with femoral neck fractures [18].

Key Evidence

• [L1] The assessment of clinically relevant outcomes in the young femoral neck fracture literature is lacking, which makes utilising the literature to guide clinical practice challenging. [1] (10.1016/j.injury.2014.11.020)
• [L4] Nonetheless, observed excellent functional outcome at mid-term follow-up supports joint-preserving strategies in non-geriatric femoral neck fractures. [2] (10.1007/s00402-018-3011-0)
• [L4] The study emphasizes that femoral neck fractures should not be viewed in isolation as purely mechanical fixation problems but must be contemplated against a background of impaired bone density and poor general health. [3] (10.1016/0020-1383(76)90041-3)
• [L2] Subsequent fractures, including second hip fractures, occurred frequently and early following an index femoral neck fracture in 2 large global cohorts. [4] (10.2106/jbjs.22.00088)
• [Case_report] FAI may be a less common but potential cause of delayed union or non-union in the setting of femoral neck fracture in the young. [5] (10.1007/s00402-015-2186-x)
• [Paper] Excessive femoral neck collapse (more than 15 mm) is associated with an increased risk of fracture healing complications and increased loss of function. [6] (10.1016/j.injury.2016.10.021)
• [L1] Standardization toward optimal outcomes for femoral neck fractures is needed. [7] (10.1016/j.arth.2011.06.025)
• [L2] Several baseline factors were identified as being associated with lower health-related quality of life, hip function, and utility after a femoral neck fracture. [8] (10.1302/0301-620x.100b3.bjj-2017-0853.r1)
• [L4] The frequency of failure following femoral neck fractures does not seem to differ between persons under or over the age of 50 years. [9] (10.1016/0020-1383(82)90049-3)
• [L3] Despite established guidelines, low rates of osteoporotic pharmacotherapy were seen in patients who had femoral neck fractures. [10] (10.1016/j.arth.2025.07.028)
• [L4] Undisplaced femoral neck fractures can be difficult to diagnose. [11] (10.1016/0020-1383(92)90054-v)
• [L5] Femoral neck fractures are devastating injuries in the young adult population. [12] (10.1016/j.injury.2014.11.015)
• [L3] Arthroplasty is more likely to improve long-term survival in femoral neck fracture patients aged over 90 years than nonoperative treatment. [13] (10.1186/s12891-020-03249-7)
• [L5] Young adult femoral neck fracture management remains a challenge for practicing orthopaedic surgeons. [14] (10.1016/j.injury.2014.11.017)
• [L3] Despite the advantages of THA, femoral neck fractures remain a major risk factor for long-term complications. [15] (10.1016/j.arth.2024.09.012)
• [L1] [16] (10.1016/j.injury.2014.10.010)
• [L5] The risk factors for such a complication include being of advanced age, female, osteoporotic bones and having a small femoral head and neck, as well as a basicervical type of primary fracture. [17] (10.1016/s0020-1383(11)70117-6)
• [L3] This suggests that this patient group is epidemiologically similar to older patients with femoral neck fractures. [18] (10.1186/s12891-019-2732-8)
• [L3] FNS has excellent biomechanical properties and shows significantly higher overall construct stability. [20] (10.1186/s13018-021-02517-z)
• [L3] Hip function in patients with femoral neck fracture surgery delayed over 21 days recovered more slowly than that in those who underwent surgery within 7 days. [21] (10.1186/s12891-020-03521-w)
• [L4] The majority of patients were treated successfully, indicating that this technique should be considered as an alternative treatment option for selected young patients with delayed fracture healing of the femoral neck. [22] (10.1007/s00402-011-1344-z)
• [L3] Therefore, it is a feasible and effective method in the treatment of young adult patients with femoral neck fracture. [23] (10.1016/j.injury.2018.06.014)
• [L2] [24] (10.1016/s0020-1383(96)00198-2)
• [L4] [25] (10.5435/00124635-199803000-00005)
• [L3] Patients with femoral neck fractures treated with internal fixation achieved good functional outcomes, but the majority did not regain their pre-fracture health-related quality of life at 24-month follow-up. [26] (10.1016/j.injury.2017.10.028)
• [L4] This review illustrated previously undescribed appearances following intracapsular femoral neck fractures, demonstrating that all theoretical outcomes are possible. [28] (10.1016/j.injury.2011.05.012)
• [L3] Approximately 1 in 6 patients live at least 10 years following a hip fracture. [29] (10.2106/jbjs.24.00379)
• [L4] The review recommends treating displaced femoral neck fractures on an urgent basis to prevent osteonecrosis and improve functional outcome. [30] (10.5312/wjo.v5.i3.204)
• [L3] A high grade of osteoporosis is the most important predisposing factor in the spontaneous development of a subcapital femoral neck fracture after a healed intertrochanteric hip fracture. [31] (10.1007/s004020050408)
• [L1] Bone scintigrams during the first 6 months after operation do not reliably predict failure of internal fixation of fractures of the neck of the femur. [32] (10.1016/0020-1383(87)90382-2)
• [L4] The incidence of femoral neck fractures rose from 0.43/103 population among those less than 60 years old to over 20/105 among those over 90. [33] (10.1016/0020-1383(77)90062-6)
• [L3] Spontaneous femoral neck fracture exhibits internal heterogeneity based on its different causes. [34] (10.1186/s12891-023-07058-6)
• [L3] The necessity for DTS should be re-evaluated in elderly patients with femoral neck fractures, given that this increases the length of the delay until surgery. [35] (10.1186/s13018-020-01918-w)
• [L3] The potential advantages of the posterior approach have not been demonstrated after femoral neck fractures and we advise against its continued use. [36] (10.1016/j.injury.2017.03.024)
• [L4] Treatment of femoral neck fractures in patients fifty years old or less yielded very good results overall, and even the occurrence of osteonecrosis did not necessarily cause an unsatisfactory result. [38] (10.2106/00004623-198567080-00018)
• [L4] Internal fixation remains the standard of care for nondisplaced femoral neck fractures in the elderly, but notable rates of revision surgery and complications have been documented. [39] (10.5435/jaaos-d-20-00349)
• [L3] Reoperation was not infrequent following internal fixation of apparently non-displaced femoral neck fractures in elderly patients. [40] (10.1016/j.arth.2023.06.035)
• [L3] In the management of Pauwels type III femoral neck fractures in young patients, FNS demonstrates clinical efficacy comparable to CCSs. [48] (10.1186/s13018-025-05461-4)
• [L5] Failure to detect and appropriately treat an acetabular fracture may lead to significant complications such as the femoral neck fracture in our patient. [49] (10.1016/s0020-1383(97)00145-9)
• [L5] The identification of a pre-existing fractured neck of femur will obviously greatly alter the surgical management of the patient especially with regard to the type of fixation device to be used. [50] (10.1016/0020-1383(95)90055-1)
• [L4] There were no cases of missed/delayed femoral neck fractures in patients with a negative MRI. [51] (10.1016/j.injury.2021.05.009)
• [L1] The outcome of the DEFENDD trial will provide high-level evidence of which implant is favourable for the treatment of femoral neck fractures in young patients (≤65 years). [52] (10.1186/s12891-020-3131-x)
• [L3] The femoral neck system alone or combined with a cannulated screw demonstrated better short-term efficacy in the treatment of femoral neck fractures. [53] (10.1186/s12891-023-06959-w)
• [L3] [55] (10.1097/01.blo.0000119459.00792.c1)
• [L2] Patients with a femoral neck fracture exhibit marked osteopenia irrespective of treatment, implying they are more sensitive to osteopenia than patients undergoing THA for arthrosis, where no bone loss occurs. [57] (10.1007/bf00387579)
• [L3] Patients who sustain a distal femoral fracture share a similar adverse event profile with those patients who sustain a femoral neck fracture. [60] (10.1177/2151458515608225)
• [L1] Over a period of seventeen years in a group of healthy, elderly patients with a displaced femoral neck fracture, total hip replacement provided better hip function and significantly fewer reoperations compared with internal fixation without increasing mortality. [61] (10.2106/jbjs.k.01615)
• [L3] The authors state that patients can be reassured that their care for geriatric femoral neck fractures yields comparable outcomes. [62] (10.5435/jaaosglobal-d-25-00103)
• [L3] Compared to previously published reoperation rates of internal fixation of nondisplaced femoral neck fractures, hip arthroplasty is a reasonable treatment option for nondisplaced femoral neck fractures to potentially decrease reoperations in a frail patient population. [63] (10.1016/j.arth.2023.04.010)
• [L4] Internal fixation remains a simple and safe method of treatment for both undisplaced and displaced femoral neck fractures in middle-age patients. [64] (10.1016/s0020-1383(02)00367-4)
• [L4] [65] (10.1302/0301-620x.100b4.bjj-2016-1098.r3)
• [L3] FNS and CSMP demonstrated similar long-term functional outcomes and complication rates in young patients with Pauwels type III femoral neck fractures. [66] (10.1186/s12891-025-08910-7)
• [L4] Outcomes for patients with femoral neck fractures are influenced by patient-related factors, and appropriate fracture reduction is significantly associated with a lower reoperation risk. [67] (10.2106/jbjs.18.00733)
• [L4] Osteosynthesis of femoral neck fractures using the newly introduced femoral neck system showed favorable clinical outcomes and no specific hardware-related complications were reported during the follow-up. [68] (10.1186/s12891-023-07113-2)
• [Paper] Collapse of the femoral neck after an intracapsular hip fracture has a detrimental effect on outcome. [69] (10.1016/s0020-1383(12)70066-9)
• [L5] There appears to be no justification for the use of more than three pin/screw implants for management of femoral neck fractures as increasing the number of implants did not significantly improve stability. [70] (10.1002/jor.1100050316)
• [L3] If internal fixation is to be used for a displaced femoral neck fracture, patient selection is essential. [71] (10.1186/s12891-018-2120-9)
• [L3] Non-randomized studies provided results dissimilar to randomized trials of arthroplasty vs internal fixation for mortality and revision rates in patients with femoral neck fractures. [73] (10.1007/s00402-003-0559-z)
• [L3] The authors recommend primary operative stabilization of undisplaced femoral neck fractures. [74] (10.1016/s0020-1383(96)00073-3)
• [L5] [75] (10.5435/jaaos-d-23-00720)
• [Paper] [76] (10.1016/j.injury.2010.05.008)
• [L4] The present study highlights the morphological diversity and complexity within femoral neck fractures in young and middle-aged adults, which allows for more accurate simulation of femoral neck fracture patterns in future biomechanical studies. [77] (10.1186/s12891-024-07207-5)
• [L4] [79] (10.1186/s12891-021-04703-w)
• [L3] The biomechanical and clinical dominance of positive buttress correlates with Pauwels type; it is biomechanically stable in Pauwels types I and II but not advantageous in type III. [80] (10.1186/s12891-024-07802-6)
• [L4] The most reproducible classification system divides cervical hip fractures into undisplaced (33%) and displaced (67%). [96] (10.1016/s0020-1383(02)00324-8)
• [L5] The Garden classification is the most commonly used system for femoral neck fractures despite poor interobserver reliability, with a simplified two-category system (displaced vs. nondisplaced) showing better reliability. [105] (10.1007/s11999.0000000000000066)
• [L3] [106] (10.1016/j.injury.2020.10.098)
• [Paper] Non-operative management appears to remain a viable treatment option for non-osteoporotic patients with Garden I femoral neck fractures with a risk of secondary displacement close to 10%. [108] (10.1007/s00402-014-2139-9)
• [L3] DCS and MCS demonstrated effectiveness in treating femoral neck fractures in young adults. [111] (10.1186/s13018-024-04913-7)
• [L4] [116] (10.1186/s13018-023-04269-4)
• [L3] For femoral neck fracture in pediatric patients, both the injury mechanism and fracture characteristics have age-related distributions. [118] (10.1186/s13018-020-01587-9)
• [L1] For young and middle-aged patients with femoral neck fractures, both FNS and CS combined with a medial plate are effective. [122] (10.1186/s13018-025-05972-0)
• [L4] Better reliability was found for the classification of femoral neck fractures simply as 'non-displaced' or 'displaced'. [123] (10.1016/j.otsr.2012.02.003)
• [L3] In this practice, the incidence of femoral neck fracture is 1.5% in unilateral and 11% in bilateral simultaneous procedures. [124] (10.1016/j.arth.2008.04.008)
• [L3] Patients receiving the combination strategy have faster and high-quality functional recovery after femoral neck fractures and a lower incidence rate of postoperative complications. [125] (10.1186/s13018-023-04002-1)
• [L4] Femoral neck insufficiency fractures occurred in 1.9% of cases, with significant new pain after recovery alerting surgeons to this complication. [126] (10.1007/s00167-012-2355-1)
• [L3] THA after failed internal fixation of femoral neck fracture is a well tolerated and effective procedure in older and younger patients. [127] (10.1186/s13018-023-03827-0)
• [L3] In patients aged 65 years or younger, internal fixation after reduction for severe valgus-impacted femoral neck fractures is safe and effective for achieving successful bone union and restoring the femoral neck length. [128] (10.1016/j.injury.2020.10.028)
• [L3] Our findings challenge the hypothesis that pre-existing osteoarthritis is a contraindication to hemiarthroplasty in elderly patients with femoral neck fracture. [129] (10.1186/s12891-015-0767-z)
• [L4] The clinical indications for implant removal in healed pertrochanteric fractures are not well established and should be restricted to specific cases. [130] (10.1007/s00402-020-03435-1)
• [L3] FNS presented satisfactory outcomes with a significantly lower complication rate, therefore, can be one of the alternatives for internal implantation devices in treatment of femoral neck fracture in non-geriatric population. [131] (10.1186/s12891-023-06140-3)
• [L3] We recommend this procedure for neglected femoral neck fractures. [134] (10.1016/j.injury.2012.09.014)
• [L2] The study concludes that non-operative treatment of impacted femoral neck fractures is justified for most patients, sparing 69% an unnecessary operation. [137] (10.1016/s0020-1383(02)00325-x)
• [L3] [138] (10.1016/j.otsr.2019.09.027)
• [L5] [139] (10.1016/j.injury.2014.12.031)
• [L3] Providers may choose the method of arthroplasty stem fixation for the treatment of femoral neck fracture based on what they deem most appropriate for the specific patient. [141] (10.1016/j.arth.2023.08.017)
• [L3] Selective use of cementless femoral fixation in patients younger than 65 years who had a femoral neck fracture did not result in an increased risk of revision or reoperation at 10 years compared to cemented fixation. [142] (10.1016/j.arth.2025.07.013)
• [L4] Routine additional methods of image investigation of femoral neck fractures may be unnecessary for diaphyseal fractures type A1 and A2. [143] (10.1016/j.injury.2021.01.040)
• [L4] Limited small trials have attempted to determine the optimum surgical implant for young femoral neck fractures, and considerable controversy remains in the literature and among practicing surgeons. [144] (10.1016/j.injury.2014.11.028)
• [L4] [157] (10.1016/j.injury.2009.06.166)
• [L1] Surgery to treat undisplaced femoral neck fractures was associated with a higher union rate and a tendency toward less avascular necrosis than conservative treatment. [160] (10.1186/s13018-017-0528-9)
• [L1] The risk of reoperation and mortality following the treatment of nondisplaced femoral neck fractures in the elderly with internal fixation exceeds 14%. [161] (10.1016/j.injury.2019.09.039)
• [L4] A significant dependence on the pressure values could be demonstrated for hip joint position, with the highest values found in extension and internal rotation. [162] (10.1016/s0020-1383(02)00329-7)
• [L4] For closed reduction and fixation of displaced femoral neck fractures in young adults, an inferior cortical buttress reduction pattern, though non-anatomic, can produce sustainable fracture stability and predictable clinical outcomes. [171] (10.1186/s13018-019-1109-x)
• [L2] Early scintigraphic patterns after osteosynthesis of femoral neck fractures have to be validated with care. [173] (10.1007/bf00393709)
• [L4] [175] (10.1016/j.otsr.2018.11.007)
• [L3] Valgus osteotomy is a good option for non-union of neck of femur in young adults. [176] (10.1016/s0020-1383(17)30486-2)
• [L4] The author concludes that an anteroposterior radiograph of the pelvis is essential in all femur fractures to avoid missing associated femoral neck fractures. [177] (10.1016/0020-1383(96)89813-5)
• [L3] [189] (10.1016/j.injury.2015.06.016)
• [L4] [190] (10.1186/s12891-023-06839-3)
• [L3] Therefore, advanced imaging of Garden I/II femoral neck fractures objectively increases the number of fractures considered too unstable for internal fixation. [194] (10.5435/jaaos-d-25-00669)
• [Paper] CT scan does not bear sufficient sensitivity to detect all occult hip fractures. [196] (10.1016/j.injury.2016.10.019)
• [L4] The modified lateral view can obtain a standard sagittal image of the femoral neck, clearly showing dislocation and angulation of sagittal femoral neck fractures, and improve diagnostic accuracy. [197] (10.1186/s13018-023-04183-9)
• [L4] The decision to treat an intracapsular femoral neck fracture with either prosthesis or internal fixation has to be based on other variables than the preoperative radiographic signs evaluated in this study. [205] (10.1007/s00402-006-0276-5)
• [L4] Objective sound wave analysis may be used as a diagnostic test or screening tool in the assessment of occult hip fractures and could serve as a substitute for MRI scans. [213] (10.1016/j.injury.2011.09.030)
• [L5] This multicenter cohort study identifies a subgroup of elderly patients with MRI verified Garden I and II FNFs sustained after trauma, i.e. occult fractures. [214] (10.1186/s12891-022-05088-0)
• [L1] The use of the CT capsular sign with lipohemarthrosis as a selective indicator for preoperative hip MRI or prophylactic femoral neck fixation with a reconstruction nail in patients with high-energy femoral shaft fractures is effective for preventing unplanned surgery due to delayed diagnosis of occult ipsilateral femoral neck fractures. [215] (10.2106/jbjs.20.02033)
• [L3] Using current methods of internal fixation of intracapsular hip fractures, there is no significant association between the posterior multifragmentation of the femoral neck observed on preoperative radiography and the later development of fracture healing complications. [217] (10.1016/j.injury.2008.08.008)
• [L2] Scintimetry is a useful tool in predicting poor outcome due to femoral head necrosis and/or non-union in the treatment of intracapsular hip fractures. [219] (10.1007/bf00440592)
• [L4] The authors were able to achieve an early complications rate of less than 6% by acquiring many years of experience and by modifying the method to suit the individual patient and fracture. [220] (10.1016/s0020-1383(02)00327-3)
• [Paper] Median survival in male fracture patients was reduced from 5.2 years in age-matched controls to 1.6 years, and for female subjects from 6.6 to 2.8 years. [221] (10.1016/j.injury.2006.02.046)
• [L4] Abnormal radiographs do not change treatment course in the presence of a normal history and physical. [222] (10.1016/j.injury.2019.07.005)

See Also

• Femoroacetabular impingement
• Hip resurfacing
• Total hip replacement

References

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