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Elbow neuropathies: ulnar (cubital tunnel), radial, and median nerve compression – diagnosis & management strategies.

112 citationsUpdated Sep 2026

Overview

Compressive neuropathies are diagnosed through a combination of clinical presentation, physical examination, imaging, and electrodiagnostic studies, as no true diagnostic gold standard exists for most conditions [8]. Patient demographics vary across neuropathy types, suggesting distinct etiologies [9]. While nonsurgical treatment succeeds in most patients with mild nerve dysfunction [12], surgical intervention is usually indicated when symptoms persist or muscle weakness develops, particularly for compressive ulnar neuropathies at the elbow [1]. The choice of surgical procedure depends on neuropathy severity and patient factors [1]. Recent literature supports a trend toward early surgery for carpal tunnel syndrome, regardless of median nerve denervation status [61]. Conversely, surgical decompression of the median or anterior interosseous nerve in the forearm is rarely indicated, warranting a prolonged nonsurgical approach in most cases [60]. For radial nerve palsy, non-operative treatment usually yields satisfactory results, with surgery reserved for nerve transection or lack of improvement after conservative care [46].

Surgical outcomes vary by nerve and context. Decompression of median and ulnar neuropathies following shoulder surgery led to nearly 90% symptom resolution, as these symptoms were often refractory to conservative management [2]. Posterior interosseous nerve decompression resulted in good outcomes for the majority of patients, with preoperative symptoms and intraoperative observations related to final results [13]. In carpal tunnel syndrome, nerve-conduction studies serve as a prognostic factor; patients with motor abnormalities appear to have more favorable surgical results than those with only sensory abnormalities [11]. Current evidence suggests that different surgical methods for ulnar neuropathy at the elbow do not differ in clinical outcomes [26], and no single procedure has shown superiority for recalcitrant cubital tunnel syndrome [19]. Individualized treatment is emphasized to maximize nerve recovery potential in these recalcitrant cases [19].

Complications of compressive neuropathy management include iatrogenic injury, treatment failure, and pathologic pain syndromes [3]. Prevention relies on a solid understanding of normal anatomy and anatomic variations [3]. Diagnosis and treatment are shifting toward preoperative imaging with ultrasound and MRN [6], though expert consensus on ultrasound reference values for upper extremity neuropathy evaluation is lacking [14]. The management of failed decompressions remains challenging [6]. Standardized assessment protocols for ulnar neuropathy are required for future comparison trials [58]. Clear definitions distinguishing recurrence from persistent compression neuropathy, along with agreements on supplementary diagnostics and standardized outcome measurements, are needed to enable comparing results from different techniques and clinics [5]. A comprehensive and individualized treatment plan is crucial for optimizing patient outcomes with painful traumatic peripheral nerve neuromas [57].

Anatomy & Pathophysiology

Bony Anatomy

The elbow is a trocho-ginglymoid joint comprising medial and lateral articulations that provide bony stability [71]. The ulnohumeral joint forms where the trochlea articulates with the ulna within the greater sigmoid notch, exhibiting highly congruent anatomy through almost 180° of articular contact, except for a bare area on the greater sigmoid notch devoid of cartilage [71]. The radiocapitellar joint is formed by the articulation of the capitellum and the radial head, a concave elliptical structure covered with articular cartilage along the radiocapitellar joint and approximately 270° of the articular margin [71].

The distal humeral articulation is angled 30° from the longitudinal axis [71]. The axis of rotation is angulated 5° to 7° in the coronal plane relative to the epicondylar axis, with the medial side more distal than the lateral side [71]. The ulna bends approximately 8° medially at 8 cm from the tip of the olecranon, and the articulation to the tip of the coronoid is approximately 30° from the long axis of the ulna in the sagittal plane [71]. The distal humeral shaft is triangular in cross-section with its apex directed anteriorly, bifurcating into medial and lateral cortical columns [87]. The medial column diverges approximately 45 degrees from the humeral shaft in the coronal plane, while the lateral column diverges at approximately 20 degrees [87]. The lateral column curves anteriorly, creating a 35 to 40 degrees angle with the shaft in the sagittal plane [87].

In the coronal plane, the trochlea is more distal than the capitellum, resulting in a valgus alignment of 4 to 8 degrees [87]. The overall elbow valgus angle in extension is 10 to 17 degrees, termed the carrying angle [87]. The distal humerus articular surface is internally rotated 3 to 8 degrees axially [87]. The trochlea is covered by articular cartilage anteriorly, inferiorly, and posteriorly, creating an arc of almost 270 degrees [87]. The olecranon fossa and coronoid fossa are separated by a thin bony septum [87]. The articular surface of the distal humerus is angled 30 degrees anterior to the humeral shaft axis [79].

The normal range of elbow flexion/extension is 0 to 150 degrees, with a functional range of motion of 30 to 130 degrees [79]. Normal forearm pronosupination is 80 to 85 degrees in each direction, with a functional range of motion of 50 degrees [79]. The normal valgus carrying angle of the elbow is 5 to 10 degrees for men and 10 to 15 degrees for women [79]. In full extension, 60% of axial load is transmitted through the radiocapitellar joint [79].

Ligamentous Anatomy

The medial ulnar collateral ligament (MUCL) is the primary restraint to valgus stress within functional elbow range of motion [79]. It originates on the posterior medial epicondyle and inserts on the sublime tubercle of the medial coronoid process [79]. The posterior bundle of the MUCL is the primary restraint to valgus stress with the elbow in maximal flexion [79]. Stability in full elbow extension is provided by the MCL, joint capsule, and ulnohumeral articulation [79].

The lateral collateral ligament complex consists of the radial collateral ligament, the lateral ulnar collateral ligament (LUCL), and the annular ligament [87]. The annular ligament attaches to the anterior and posterior margins of the lesser sigmoid notch [87]. The radial collateral ligament originates from an isometric point on the lateral epicondyle and fans out to attach to the annular ligament [87]. The LUCL arises from the isometric point on the lateral epicondyle and attaches to the crista supinatoris of the proximal ulna [87]. The LCL complex functions as an important restraint to varus and posterolateral rotatory instability [87].

Osborne’s ligament stabilizes the ulnar nerve in the cubital tunnel [72]. The ligament of Struthers is a variant anatomy arising from the supracondylar process to attach to the medial epicondyle and is a potential site of median nerve compression [72].

Neurovascular Anatomy

The ulnar nerve lies in a bony groove covered and restrained by the arcuate ligament posterior to the medial epicondyle [82]. It passes through the cubital tunnel at the medial column of the elbow and enters the anterior forearm by traveling between the two heads of the flexor carpi ulnaris [81]. The ulnar nerve is located just superficial to the posteromedial joint capsule [88]. The median nerve and brachial artery are located just superficial to the anteromedial joint capsule and brachialis muscle [88].

On the anterolateral side of the elbow, the radial nerve splits into the superficial sensory branch and the posterior interosseous nerve [88]. The posterior interosseous nerve is just superficial to the anterior joint capsule at the level of the radiocapitellar joint and courses longitudinally along the medial side of the capitellum [88]. At the level of the radial neck, the posterior interosseous nerve may come in direct contact with the joint capsule [88].

Pathophysiology

Compression, traction, and friction are implicated in cubital tunnel syndrome [69]. Compression is usually regarded as the principal mechanism of nerve damage in peripheral neuropathy [69]. Nerve damage from compression may occur by direct mechanical compression or by compression of the intrinsic blood supply causing local ischemia [69]. Mechanical compression forces of > 30 mm Hg retard blood flow to the nerve [69]. Compression interferes with axonal transport pathways [69]. Larger fibers containing more myelin are more susceptible to compression than smaller non-myelinated fibers [69]. Compression is most effective at the edge of the compression area, known as the "edge effect" [69]. Pre-existing subclinical mechanical compression at a different location may increase susceptibility to compression at a second, more distal site, known as the "double crush" phenomenon [69].

Previous injuries to the nerve may tether it to the walls of the tunnel, preventing normal sliding and exposing it to traction injuries [69]. A tight tunnel may predispose the nerve to friction and compression [69]. Dynamic changes in the cubital tunnel with elbow flexion increase pressure and stretch the ulnar nerve [45]. The ulnar nerve requires up to 22 mm of gliding at the elbow to accommodate normal elbow movement [36]. Up to 29% elongation of the ulnar nerve occurs with elbow flexion [36]. Following trauma or sustained force, inflammation, reduced vascularity, and absence of lymphatic drainage can result in fibrotic tissue formation and loss of neural excursion [36]. Loss of normal neural glide may inhibit the nerve's ability to adapt to motion demands, causing further nerve damage during daily activities [36].

Tearing of the ulnar collateral ligament significantly increases elbow valgus laxity, which elongates the ulnar nerve during simulated throwing motion [120]. Increased elbow flexion in patients with cubital tunnel syndrome influences the intraneural blood flow of the ulnar nerve [137]. Shoulder position changes the ulnar nerve strain around the elbow in living patients with cubital tunnel syndrome [133]. Increased pressure in the cubital tunnel is important, as exposure to lesser extraneural pressure by repetitive non-maximum elbow flexion might be more deleterious [132].

Neuropathy is present in a substantial number of diabetic patients, with around 10% having some degree of neuropathy at diagnosis and 40% developing it within 10 years [27]. Diabetic neuropathy is caused by sustained hyperglycemia leading to the formation of advanced glycation end products (AGE) [27]. AGE cause direct neuronal injury and microvascular damage, negatively affecting peripheral nerve function [27]. Sustained hyperglycemia causes excess production of reactive oxygen species, resulting in direct damage to intracellular proteins and membrane lipids [27]. Excess production of superoxide species disrupts nitric oxide function, causing vasoconstriction and subsequent ischemia and end-organ damage [27].

Critical illness can induce neuropathy characterized by a functional deficit in nerves that may not have a pathological correlate on biopsy [64]. Nerve excitability is reduced in patients with critical illness polyneuropathy [64]. Restoration of normal excitability following brief hyperpolarization of axons suggests a hyperexcitability mechanism in critical illness neuropathy [64]. An axonal transport block during compression involves ischemia of the compressed nerve segment due to occlusion of the vasa nervorum and mechanical deformation of nerve fibers [68]. Reduced axonal transport occurs in nerves compressed at low pressure (fifty millimeters of mercury) [68]. Functional integrity of an axon depends on the continued supply of trophic substances transported along the axon [68]. Proximal axonal stenosis can cause axonal atrophy distal to the stenosis and slowing of motor-conduction velocity [68].

Classification

McGowan: Originally described in 1950, this scale classifies disease severity into three grades based on sensory and motor examination findings [38]. Grade 1 represents a minimal lesion with no detectable motor weakness of the hand [54]. Grade 2 is characterized by an intermediate lesion in which a sensory disturbance is accompanied by interosseous muscle weakness and some wasting [54]. Grade 3 is a severe lesion with profound weakness of the interossei [54]. The system defines grades 1 and 2 as mild dysfunction and grade 3 as severe dysfunction for evaluating ulnar nerve dysfunction [171]. The McGowan score is a system based on signs and symptoms of ulnar neuropathy from patient reports and clinician examination [168].

McGowan–Golberg and Dellon: These classifications are traditionally used to describe disease severity for cubital tunnel syndrome [143]. They are based on symptoms and/or clinician opinion, without objective measures of function [143]. Grading is hierarchical, based on sensory symptoms alone, sensory symptoms with mild weakness, and sensory symptoms with severe weakness and muscle wasting or paralysis [143]. Dellon's staging system is used to classify cubital tunnel syndrome severity, with Grade 3 indicating severe disease [170].

Akahori and Gu: This classification incorporates electrodiagnostic criteria in the form of conduction velocities [143].

Gross and Gelberman: This system describes tripartite zoning of the ulnar nerve within the Guyon canal, which can be useful for identifying the site of compression [169]. Zone 1 includes the ulnar nerve trunk proximal to the superficial sensory and deep motor branches [169]. Zone 2 includes the deep motor branch of the ulnar nerve [169]. Zone 3 includes the superficial sensory branch of the ulnar nerve [169]. A combined motor and sensory deficit indicates compression in Zone 1, although small lesions in this zone can cause isolated sensory or motor deficits [169]. Isolated motor symptoms most likely manifest because of Zone 2 compression [169]. Most pure sensory deficits are caused by compression in Zone 3 [169]. Limitations of this three-zone classification scheme include anatomic variation and the possibility of multiple sites of compression [169]. The pisohamate hiatus was present in 57% and 80% of hands in two studies, despite being frequently reported as the proximal boundary of Zone 2 [169].

Other Considerations: There is no reliable grading system that directs treatment and predicts outcome for cubital tunnel syndrome [143]. Preoperative CuTS severity can be established using a combination of McGowan score and a quantitative measure of ulnar nerve function from electrodiagnostic test results [168]. Scores on the DASH questionnaire reflect the clinical staging of ulnar neuropathy at the elbow [136].

Clinical Presentation

General Diagnostic Principles

Diagnosis of compressive neuropathies relies on a combination of clinical presentation, physical examination findings, imaging modalities, and electrodiagnostic studies, as there is no true diagnostic gold standard for most conditions [8]. A complete history and a thorough physical examination are essential first steps in establishing a correct diagnosis of ulnar neuropathies at the elbow [22]. Prior to committing an individual to surgery for entrapment neuropathy, careful history, detailed examination, and adequate testing should be carried out to ascertain that there are no non-compressive etiologies for the presentation [25]. The demographics of patients with various compressive neuropathies were not homogeneous, suggesting different etiologies [9]. Peripheral nerve injuries can dramatically affect a patient's life [7].

Carpal Tunnel Syndrome

Carpal tunnel syndrome is the most common compression neuropathy of the upper extremity [24]. The mean age at diagnosis is 50 years [24]. Carpal tunnel syndrome is more common in women than men by nearly four times [24]. By the age of 65 years, the prevalence is approximately 5.1% for women and 1.3% for men [24]. Risk factors include obesity, pregnancy, hypothyroidism, diabetes mellitus, and menopause [24]. The American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons guidelines list body mass index (BMI) and high hand repetition rate as factors with strong evidence of increased risk for development of carpal tunnel syndrome [24].

Classically, carpal tunnel syndrome presents with nocturnal paresthesias in a median nerve distribution that gradually worsen as nerve injury progresses, leading to sensory loss and thenar muscle atrophy late in the disease course [24]. Many patients report pain in the hand and may report symptoms that are not directly referable to the median nerve [24]. A positive Tinel sign at the wrist or development of symptoms after provocative Phalen maneuver can aid in the diagnosis [24]. The reported specificity of Tinel sign at the wrist can vary from 55% to 100% [24]. Reported sensitivities for Tinel’s test range from 45% to 75% [84]. Reported sensitivities for the wrist flexion/compression test range from 49% to 89% [84]. Nerve-conduction studies can be used as a prognostic factor, with patients having motor abnormalities appearing to have more favorable results than those with only sensory abnormalities [11].

Cubital Tunnel Syndrome

Cubital tunnel syndrome is the most common form of entrapment of the ulnar nerve and the second most common nerve compression syndrome of the upper extremity [33]. Ulnar nerve entrapment is the second most common nerve entrapment syndrome of the upper extremity, most commonly occurring in the cubital tunnel [32]. Ulnar neuropathies are more frequent in men [34]. Patients with cubital tunnel syndrome are more likely to present with muscle atrophy, reflecting advanced nerve damage that may not respond to surgery [30]. Nonsurgical treatment is successful in most patients with mild nerve dysfunction [12]. If symptoms persist or muscle weakness develops, surgery is usually indicated, with the choice of procedure depending on the severity of the neuropathy and patient factors [1]. Neuropathy symptoms in median and ulnar neuropathies following shoulder surgery were often refractory to conservative management, while surgical decompression led to nearly 90% symptom resolution [2]. No surgical treatment procedure has shown superiority over another for recalcitrant cubital tunnel syndrome; however, individualized treatment is emphasized to improve symptoms and maximize nerve recovery potential [19].

More pronounced ulnar nerve thickening at the time of diagnosis is associated with poor outcome at follow-up, especially in conservatively treated cases [21]. Electrodiagnostic signs of demyelination on testing indicate favorable outcome for ulnar neuropathy at the elbow [21]. Nearly forty percent of patients with a provisional diagnosis of Cubital Tunnel Syndrome had either another nerve pathology or a normal test [31]. The diagnostic value of provocative tests in ulnar neuropathy at the elbow is poor and should not be recommended for clinical decision making [49]. Reported sensitivities for Tinel’s test are 70% [84]. Reported sensitivities for the elbow flexion/compression test are 91% [84]. False-positive rates of 20% to 30% have been reported for Tinel’s test and elbow flexion/compression test in asymptomatic individuals [84]. A diagnosis of ulnar nerve compression merits a comprehensive workup by the treating surgeon and a high suspicion for concomitant median nerve compression [48]. Dynamic compressive neuropathies around the elbow are rare entities that present unique diagnostic challenges, often requiring dynamic nerve conduction studies for diagnosis [16]. Short-segment nerve conduction studies can detect nerve impairment in early stages and mild lesions, providing accurate lesion locations for surgery [37]. Precise localization of the ulnar nerve below and above the elbow with submaximal stimulations improves accuracy of the distance measurement [35].

The McGowan classification grades 1-3 for cubital tunnel syndrome severity based on sensory and motor examination findings [38]. McGowan Grade 1: Represents a minimal lesion with no detectable motor weakness of the hand [54]. McGowan Grade 2: Characterized by an intermediate lesion in which a sensory disturbance is accompanied by interosseous muscle weakness and some wasting [54]. McGowan Grade 3: A severe lesion with profound weakness of the interossei [54].

Other Upper Extremity Neuropathies

Compression neuropathies are a significant source of pain in the upper extremity [29]. Ganglia are the most common cause of ulnar tunnel syndrome [53]. Symptoms of ulnar tunnel syndrome vary based on the anatomic location of the compression within Guyon's canal [53]. The diagnostic process to differentiate pronator syndrome from carpal tunnel syndrome remains a challenge due to overlapping symptoms and limited reliable information in the literature [83]. Clinical findings are important in diagnosing median nerve compression secondary to a high insertion of pronator teres because imaging and nerve conduction studies may fail to provide a definitive answer [17]. Decompression of the posterior interosseous nerve resulted in good outcomes for the majority of patients, with preoperative symptoms and observations at surgery related to the results [13]. Nontraumatic neuropathies of the upper limb are rare in children, and high-quality evidence regarding diagnostics and treatment remains limited [18]. Physicians treating peripheral nerve disorders in individuals from endemic regions should consider leprosy when confronted with a mass in or near the ulnar nerve associated with peripheral neuropathy [50].

Examination and Diagnostic Modalities

Many signs and provocation tests have been described for clinical evaluation of peripheral compressive neuropathy [15]. The concept of increasing tension or compression on a nerve to assess for nerve compression at the carpal tunnel may be extrapolated to other sites [15]. The diagnosis and treatment of compressive neuropathies continue to evolve with technology, shifting towards preoperative imaging with ultrasound and MRN [6]. Expert consensus on best practice for the clinical use of ultrasound for upper extremity neuropathy evaluation is lacking [14]. Ultrasound measurements of the ulnar nerve at the medial epicondyle correlate with electrodiagnostic studies [86]. Gray-scale and Power Doppler ultrasound findings are predictive of cubital tunnel syndrome severity [91].

A detailed neurologic examination of the hand and digits, including motor function, sensation, and two-point discrimination, should be performed to identify injury to the median, radial, ulnar, anterior interosseous, or posterior interosseous nerves [97]. Approximately one-quarter of patients in a series exhibited incomplete ulnar neuropathy at the time of injury [97]. Electromyography and nerve conduction studies may be useful to evaluate the degree of nerve compression and contribution to the elbow pain and/or dysfunction [98]. The basic pathophysiology of nerve compression injury is complex and multifactorial, involving changes in intraneural circulation and nerve fiber structure [20]. The authors emphasize the need for clear definitions of recurrence versus persistent compression neuropathy, agreements on supplementary diagnostics, and standardized outcome measurements to enable comparing results from different techniques and clinics [5].

Investigations

Clinical Assessment and Differential Diagnosis

Clinical findings are paramount in median nerve compression secondary to a high insertion of pronator teres, as imaging and nerve conduction studies may fail to provide a definitive answer [17]. Elbow evaluation requires an intimate understanding of anatomy, biomechanics, and diagnostic tests for this complex joint [47]. The physical exam is directed by the history and the location of the patient's pain in the anterior, posterior, medial, or lateral aspect of the elbow [47]. The ulnar nerve is of utmost importance in the neurovascular examination due to its anatomic proximity to the joint [93]. An assessment for ulnar nerve subluxation should be performed during the physical examination of the elbow [93]. Ulnar neuropathy is present in up to 50% of patients with osteoarthritis of the elbow [102].

Electrodiagnostic Studies

Electromyography and nerve conduction velocity studies should be performed if any question about neurologic dysfunction exists in the evaluation of the elbow [93]. Nerve-conduction studies can serve as a prognostic factor, with patients having motor abnormalities appearing to have more favorable results than those with only sensory abnormalities [11]. Short-segment nerve conduction studies can detect nerve impairment in early stages and mild lesions, providing accurate lesion locations for surgery [37]. Electrodiagnostic signs of demyelination on testing indicate a favorable outcome in ulnar neuropathy at the elbow [21]. Conversely, more pronounced ulnar nerve thickening at the time of diagnosis is associated with poor outcome at follow-up, especially in conservatively treated cases [21].

Imaging Modalities

Plain radiography: Plain radiographs remain the hallmark and the best screening test for the evaluation of the elbow [47].

CT: CT is helpful when assessing for malunion architecture and the location and pattern of osteophytes and/or loose bodies in the elbow [93].

MRI: MRI is a useful diagnostic modality for confirming nerve compression, assessing space-occupying lesions, and excluding other pathologies in athletes with entrapment neuropathies of the shoulder and elbow [111]. MRI can be used to evaluate ligaments and tendons in the elbow, but it is rarely indicated [93]. Early diagnosis, careful preoperative imaging assessment, and complete decompression can be expected to result in favorable rehabilitation outcomes for ulnar nerve double crush by entrapment of a peri-cubital tunnel ganglion cyst and cubital tunnel [59]. Similarly, early diagnosis, careful preoperative imaging assessment and full decompression can be expected to receive a good rehabilitation for cubital tunnel syndrome caused by intraneural ganglion cyst of the ulnar nerve at the elbow [118].

Ultrasound: High-resolution ultrasound should be part of the initial evaluation of ulnar neuropathy at the elbow in order to assess the etiology of the conflict [67]. Musculoskeletal ultrasound has emerged as a reasonable alternative to electrodiagnostic studies in the diagnostic work-up of carpal tunnel syndrome, cubital tunnel syndrome, and other peripheral nerve compression syndromes [126]. Ultrasound is accurate in the diagnosis of ulnar neuropathy at the elbow [138] and may be able to better identify patients with early stages of ulnar neuropathy with negative electrodiagnostic findings [128]. However, ultrasound measurements seem to have a limited value in clinical results of patients treated for entrapment neuropathy of the ulnar nerve [131]. Expert consensus on best practice for the clinical use of ultrasound reference is lacking and should be a logical next step in the deployment of ultrasound for upper extremity neuropathy evaluation [14].

Diagnostic Challenges and Standardization

The available evidence is not sufficient to identify the best treatment for idiopathic ulnar neuropathy at the elbow on the basis of clinical, neurophysiological and imaging characteristics [43].

Treatment

Non-Operative Management

Most cases of ulnar nerve compression improve with nonsurgical treatment [123], and patients with mild or moderate cubital tunnel syndrome have a good likelihood of symptom reduction or recovery without surgery [108]. Acute compressive neurapraxias may resolve within weeks [108]. Dellon (1989) concluded that one-half of patients with mild ulnar nerve compression could recover without surgery if treated vigorously to minimize pressure on the nerve [108]; however, non-operative treatment is completely unsuccessful for moderate compression according to the same review [108]. Patients provided only an information program describing anatomy, probable causes, and instructions to avoid provocative movements improved as much as those treated with an elbow brace or nerve gliding exercises [108]. Neural mobilizations are advocated for cubital tunnel syndrome to restore normal nerve physiology by increasing vascularity, dispersing local inflammation, and limiting fibrotic scar tissue formation [36]. These techniques may also reverse central nervous system changes and sensitization associated with nerve injuries [36], though considerable debate persists regarding their mechanism, application, and efficacy [36], and they have been criticized for exacerbating symptoms [36].

For median nerve or anterior interosseous nerve compression in the forearm, a prolonged nonsurgical approach is warranted in most cases, as surgical decompression is rarely indicated [60]. The majority of compression neuropathies in cyclists resolve after appropriate rest and conservative treatment [117]. In pediatric and adolescent patients, non-operative treatment of cubital tunnel syndrome is unlikely to resolve symptoms [114], yet a trial of conservative care remains appropriate for most patients [116]. Chitosan phonophoresis has demonstrated significant improvements in nerve conduction, pain reduction, and hand function for mild to moderate cubital tunnel syndrome [109]. Neuromuscular disorders often require an interdisciplinary approach with regular longitudinal follow-ups to provide improved day-to-day satisfaction alongside optimal clinical outcomes [76].

Operative Management

Indications: The choice of surgical procedure depends on the severity of the neuropathy and patient factors [1]. Surgery is indicated for radial nerve palsy in cases of nerve transection or lack of improvement after conservative treatment [46]. For recalcitrant cubital tunnel syndrome, individualized treatment is emphasized to improve symptoms and maximize nerve recovery potential [19]. If nonsurgical care fails in pediatric and adolescent patients, surgery is effective for cubital tunnel syndrome [116]. Should symptoms persist in cyclists with compression neuropathies, nerve decompression may be indicated [117]. Recent literature supports the AAOS guideline but demonstrates a trend towards recommending early surgery for carpal tunnel syndrome cases with or without median nerve denervation [61]. Surgery on neural structures compromised by neuromas, neuroma-in-continuity, or compression is indicated if symptoms persist after nonoperative modalities [90].

Surgical Approach / Technique: Surgical decompression led to nearly 90% symptom resolution for neuropathies following shoulder surgery, where symptoms were often refractory to conservative management [2]. Decompression of the nerve resulted in good outcomes for the majority of patients with posterior interosseous nerve entrapment, with preoperative symptoms and observations at surgery related to the results [13]. Surgery was effective in treating cubital tunnel syndrome, with more than 90% of patients cured or showing improvement [94]. Improvement in patient-reported outcomes after simple decompression for ulnar neuropathy at the elbow continued and reached a plateau at 3 months [40], while measured strength and sensory recovery continued over 12 months [40]. Neurolysis, if performed by a surgeon skilled in microsurgery, is a safe and effective procedure for severe carpal-tunnel syndrome [113]. All patients treated surgically had an excellent result regarding carpal-tunnel symptoms associated with vasospasm, whereas only three of the conservatively treated group showed improvement [122].

Adjuncts: Cross-palm nerve grafting may be a useful adjunct to enhance sensory recovery in severe ulnar neuropathy [100]. A comprehensive and individualized treatment plan is crucial for optimizing patient outcomes with painful neuromas [57].

Complex Regional Pain Syndrome (CRPS) Considerations: Surgical options for neural injury in CRPS include neurolysis, neurorrhaphy, or neural relocation [90]. For complete nerve transection or a neuroma-in-continuity, tension on the repair site should be avoided by performing nerve grafts from the sural nerve or a branch of the medial or lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve [90]. Adhesions between the skin and nerve should be managed by Z-plasty local flaps or distant flaps [90]. If excessive scarring or adhesions develop, the neural bed should be modified with the use of autologous fat, rotational muscle flaps, pedicled muscle or fascial flaps, free muscle transfer, autologous or allograft venous wraps, or nerve conduits [90]. Internal neurolysis should be minimized during surgical management of neural injury in CRPS [90]. For the treatment of compression neuropathy in CRPS, the dystrophic response is managed by sympatholytic medications or autonomic blockade or both [90], and complete release of the involved nerve is important [90]. If there is damage to the neural bed or the neural bed is compromised, modification of the neural environment is appropriate [90].

Postoperative Care: Postoperative care for neural injury in CRPS should include sympatholytic intervention, pharmacologic palliation, physical therapy, and early active and passive range of motion [90]. Hemostasis must be established to prevent hematoma formation during neural surgery [90], and constrictive postoperative dressings should be avoided [90]. Patients undergoing surgery for compression neuropathy in CRPS should expect prolonged rehabilitation, continued use of oral nonnarcotic agents for 3 to 6 months, and some residual disability [90]. Surgical release of the intrinsic muscles by myotomy or tenotomy about the MCP or PIP joints will decrease stiffness but will not restore full range of motion, with 50% improvement being average [90].

Peripheral Nerve Injury Management: Options for treatment of peripheral nerve injuries include direct repair, single or cabled autografts, allografts, conduit-assisted repairs, nerve transfers, and tendon- and muscle-based salvage options [74]. The goals for treating surgeons in peripheral nerve injuries are to accurately describe the injury, make a best available assessment as to the likelihood of improvement without intervention, and choose the optimal intervention at the earliest time point when clarity is available [74].

Complications and Considerations

The management of failed decompressions remains challenging [6]. An acute dystrophic flare-up of quiescent CRPS is possible in the postoperative period following neural surgery [90], and exacerbation of symptoms in the postoperative period for CRPS can be managed effectively with oral medications or a continuous block [90]. Suboptimal treatment of peripheral nerve injuries can leave devastating consequences due to pain and dysfunction [74], with 24% to 41% of patients with a major peripheral nerve injury unable to return to their previous line of work [74]. There remains a lack of consensus on optimal treatment strategies for many clinical scenarios of peripheral nerve injuries [74]. Some non-compressive etiologies may be adversely affected by surgery [25]. Additional studies are needed to evaluate the effects of brief electrical stimulation in compression neuropathy [104]. High-quality evidence regarding diagnostics and treatment for nontraumatic neuropathies of the upper limb in children remains limited [18].

Neuromuscular disorders may overlap at their presentation at first stages [76]. Many of the orthopaedic treatments available treat symptoms of the disease, but it is important to be aware of the overall prognosis and natural history to devise an appropriate treatment plan [76]. Orthopaedic treatment strategies will likely change in the future as a result of pharmacologic alteration of the natural history of neuromuscular diseases [76]. The orthopaedic approach to patients with neuromuscular diseases can be challenging as both surgical and supportive methods of interventions are available [76]. The timing of surgical and supportive interventions for neuromuscular diseases should be chosen carefully and be placed in context of the patients’ overall function and the point in time of recovery [76].

Complications

Nerve Palsy and Decompression Outcomes: Surgical decompression for neuropathies following shoulder surgery achieves nearly 90% symptom resolution [2]. Prognosis is heavily influenced by preoperative status; where atrophy persists for more than one year prior to surgery, nerve recovery is rare and at best incomplete [139]. However, atrophy can show improvement for more than 24 months post-surgery, even when the nerve does not respond to stimulation [139]. Negative prognostic factors include the lack of a sensory NAP, concomitant radicular symptoms, advanced patient age, long duration of symptoms, and an advanced stage of the lesion [139]. Ultrasonographic detection of ulnar nerve swelling is a worse prognostic sign than the absence of swelling and/or demyelination [139]. Patients with severe intrinsic muscle atrophy and absent motor and sensory nerve conduction velocities can still expect satisfactory long-term functional results after surgery for severe cubital tunnel syndrome [63].

Recurrence and Revision: Recurrences are not rare and can occur after any surgical procedure for cubital tunnel syndrome, even after many years [139]. Distinguishing between recurrent and persistent ulnar neuropathy is based on symptoms but can be difficult due to potential misperception [135]. Without a control group, both objective and subjective outcomes in studies of persistent or recurrent ulnar neuropathy can be misinterpreted [135]. A perceived response to treatment may result from the placebo effect, a self-limiting disease course, or regression to the mean [135]. There is no consensus reference standard for diagnosing persistent or recurrent symptoms after ulnar nerve decompression, and evidence is limited to a few small, retrospective case series [135]. Revision surgery for recalcitrant neuropathies typically involves wide exposure and neurolysis combined with vascularized tissue and nerve wraps to decrease recurrent scar formation [42].

Surgical Complications: Complications of ulnar nerve release include persistent dysaesthesia, reflex sympathetic dystrophy, haematoma, infection, neuroma of the medial brachial and medial antebrachial cutaneous nerves, persistent sensory deficit, persistent weakness, medial epicondylectomy, and risk of damage to medial collateral ligaments [69]. For ulnar nerve anterior transmuscular transposition, no patient in either the primary or revision cohort was worse postoperatively or required reoperation [149]. At short-term follow-up, preoperative ulnar paresthesia improved in 88% of the primary cohort and 78% of the revision cohort, though only 30% and 26% respectively achieved complete relief [149]. At long-term follow-up, 88% indicated improvement in ulnar paresthesia, but only 38% claimed complete resolution, with about half having residual ulnar paresthesia and weakness with fine motor activities [149]. Overall satisfaction was high, with 90% of patients stating they would undergo the same operation again [149].

Patient Satisfaction and Psychosocial Factors: Dissatisfaction and disability after surgery in patients with advanced ulnar nerve neuropathy may stem from problems with coping or mood disturbances [135]. Depression was found to be the dominant predictor of both patient dissatisfaction and disability in patients who underwent carpal tunnel release [135]. Patients with concomitant pain syndromes or mood disorders rated the result of endoscopic carpal tunnel release less satisfactory [135]. Static numbness, weakness, and atrophy may be permanent, and incomplete understanding of this may lead to dissatisfaction and additional treatment [135]. Dissatisfaction may be inappropriately ascribed to technical shortcomings [135].

Other Considerations: Upper-extremity neuropathy can develop following nonupper extremity surgeries, particularly ACDF [41]. Delayed neuropathy of the ulnar nerve appears to be associated with a complete recovery in children, as long as it is promptly treated [62]. Neuropathy is present in a substantial number of diabetic patients, with around 10% having some degree of neuropathy at the time of diagnosis and 40% developing neuropathy within 10 years of diagnosis [27]. Elderly patients with diabetes have a higher prevalence of neuropathy [27]. Neuropathy is caused by a state of sustained hyperglycemia, which leads to the formation of AGE, causing direct neuronal injury and microvascular damage [27]. Sustained hyperglycemia causes excess production of reactive oxygen species, which results in direct damage to intracellular proteins and membrane lipids [27]. Nerve biopsy in many patients with electrophysiological evidence of neuropathy in critical illness was normal, suggesting a functional deficit without a pathological correlate [64]. Nerve excitability was reduced in patients with critical illness polyneuropathy [64]. Rapid improvement has been reported in some patients with critical illness polyneuropathy [64].

Pathophysiology of Compression: Compression forces of > 30 mm Hg retard blood flow to the nerve [69]. Compression has been shown to interfere with axonal transport pathways [69]. Larger fibres containing more myelin are more susceptible to compression than smaller non-myelinated fibres [69]. Compression is most effective at the edge of the compression area in the so-called "edge effect" [69]. Pre-existing subclinical mechanical compression of the nerve at a different location may increase the susceptibility of the same nerve to compression at a second, more distal site (the so-called "double crush" phenomenon) [69]. Previous injuries to the nerve may tether it to the walls of the tunnel, prevent normal sliding and expose it to traction injuries [69].

Recovery

Prognostic Factors and Predictors: Electrodiagnostic signs of demyelination on testing indicate a favorable outcome for ulnar neuropathy [21]. Duration of disease and baseline function are potentially important predictors of outcomes after simple decompression for ulnar neuropathy at the elbow [129]. A subset population of younger patients presents with extremely short duration of symptoms that rapidly develops muscle atrophy in cubital tunnel syndrome [172].

Surgical Recovery and Outcomes: Surgical decompression led to nearly 90% symptom resolution in neuropathies following shoulder surgery [2]. In patients with mild to moderate intrinsic atrophy treated by medial epicondylectomy, the relief of symptoms has been predictable and the motor return was complete, with no major complications [174]. Revision surgery is often needed to improve symptoms in recalcitrant neuropathies, typically involving wide exposure and neurolysis combined with vascularized tissue and nerve wraps to decrease recurrent scar formation [42]. Patients with combined nerve compressions follow similar trajectories in the postoperative period as those with isolated cubital tunnel syndrome [153]. Symptoms including sensory dysfunction and weakness improved over the 1-year follow-up period following treatment for cubital tunnel syndrome associated with previous ganglion cyst excision [56]. The delayed neuropathy of the ulnar nerve appears to be associated with a complete recovery in children, as long as it is promptly treated [62]. The patient returned to his original vocation and was alive with continuous disease-free status at 3.5-year follow-up after treatment for epithelioid sarcoma of the forearm arising from the perineural sheath of the median nerve [173].

Non-Operative and General Recovery: Complications of compressive neuropathy management include iatrogenic injury, treatment failure, and pathologic pain syndromes, with prevention relying on a solid understanding of normal anatomy and anatomic variations [3].

Key Evidence

• [L5] If symptoms persist or muscle weakness develops, surgery is usually indicated, with the choice of procedure depending on the severity of the neuropathy and patient factors. [1] (10.5435/00124635-199809000-00004)
• [L4] Neuropathy symptoms were often refractory to conservative management, while surgical decompression led to nearly 90% symptom resolution. [2] (10.1016/j.jseint.2024.05.011)
• [L5] Complications of compressive neuropathy management include iatrogenic injury, treatment failure, and pathologic pain syndromes, with prevention relying on a solid understanding of normal anatomy and anatomic variations. [3] (10.1016/j.hcl.2015.01.012)
• [L5] The authors emphasize the need for clear definitions of recurrence versus persistent compression neuropathy, agreements on supplementary diagnostics, and standardized outcome measurements to enable comparing results from different techniques and clinics. [5] (10.1177/17531934241311822)
• [L5] The diagnosis and treatment of compressive neuropathies continue to evolve with technology, shifting towards preoperative imaging with ultrasound and MRN, while the management of failed decompressions remains challenging. [6] (10.1016/j.jhsg.2022.10.009)
• [L5] Peripheral nerve injuries can dramatically affect a patient's life. [7] (10.1016/j.hcl.2015.01.007)
• [L5] Diagnosis of compressive neuropathies relies on a combination of clinical presentation, physical examination findings, and use of imaging modalities and electrodiagnostic studies, as there is no true diagnostic gold standard for most conditions. [8] (10.1016/j.jhsg.2022.10.010)
• [L3] The demographics of patients with various compressive neuropathies were not homogeneous, suggesting different etiologies. [9] (10.1177/15589447221107701)
• [L4] Nerve-conduction studies can be used as a prognostic factor, with patients having motor abnormalities appearing to have more favorable results than those with only sensory abnormalities. [11] (10.2106/00004623-197961010-00017)
• [L4] Nonsurgical treatment is successful in most patients with mild nerve dysfunction. [12] (10.5435/jaaos-d-15-00261)
• [L4] Decompression of the nerve resulted in good outcomes for the majority of patients, with preoperative symptoms and observations at surgery related to the results. [13] (10.3109/ort.1979.50.suppl-174.01)
• [Paper] Expert consensus on best practice for the clinical use of these reference is lacking and should be a logical next step in the deployment of ultrasound for upper extremity neuropathy evaluation. [14] (10.2106/jbjs.rvw.24.00099)
• [L4] Dynamic compressive neuropathies around the elbow are rare entities that present unique diagnostic challenges, often requiring dynamic nerve conduction studies for diagnosis. [16] (10.1177/2325967118807131)
• [L4] It also emphasizes the importance of clinical findings because imaging and nerve conduction studies failed to provide a definitive answer. [17] (10.1111/j.1758-5740.2010.00051.x)
• [L5] Nontraumatic neuropathies of the upper limb are rare in children, and high-quality evidence regarding diagnostics and treatment remains limited. [18] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2020.04.028)
• [L5] No surgical treatment procedure has shown superiority over another; however, individualized treatment is emphasized to improve symptoms and maximize nerve recovery potential. [19] (10.5435/jaaos-d-20-01381)
• [L5] The basic pathophysiology of nerve compression injury is complex and multifactorial, involving changes in intraneural circulation and nerve fiber structure. [20] (10.1016/s0749-0712(21)00589-8)
• [L2] More pronounced ulnar nerve thickening at the time of the diagnosis is associated with poor outcome at follow-up, especially in conservatively treated cases, while electrodiagnostic signs of demyelination on testing indicate favorable outcome. [21] (10.1212/01.wnl.0000142535.24626.90)
• [L5] A complete history and a thorough physical examination are essential first steps in establishing a correct diagnosis of ulnar neuropathies at the elbow. [22] (10.5435/00124635-199809000-00003)
• [L5] Prior to committing an individual to surgery for entrapment neuropathy, careful history, detailed examination, and adequate testing should be carried out to ascertain that there are no non-compressive etiologies for the presentation, some of which may be adversely affected by surgery. [25] (10.1177/1558944719898801)
• [L4] Current evidence suggests that different surgical methods to treat ulnar neuropathy at the elbow do not differ in their clinical outcomes. [26] (10.1016/j.hcl.2013.04.013)
• [L5] Compression neuropathies are a significant source of pain in the upper extremity. [29] (10.1016/s0749-0712(21)00355-3)
• [L4] Patients with cubital tunnel syndrome are more likely to present with muscle atrophy, reflecting advanced nerve damage that may not respond to surgery. [30] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2007.03.009)
• [L4] Nearly forty percent of patients with a provisional diagnosis of CubTS had either another nerve pathology or a normal test. [31] (10.1016/j.jse.2020.01.064)
• [L5] Ulnar nerve entrapment is the second most common nerve entrapment syndrome of the upper extremity, most commonly occurring in the cubital tunnel. [32] (10.5435/00124635-200711000-00006)
• [L5] Cubital tunnel syndrome is the most common form of entrapment of the ulnar nerve and the second most common nerve compression syndrome of the upper extremity. [33] (10.1016/s0749-0712(21)00356-5)
• [L3] Ulnar and radial neuropathies were less common, with ulnar neuropathies more frequent in men and radial neuropathies being rare. [34] (10.1177/1753193419886741)
• [L5] Precise localization of the ulnar nerve below and above the elbow with submaximal stimulations improves accuracy of the distance measurement. [35] (10.1016/j.pmr.2012.08.019)
• [L5] [36] (10.1258/ht.2011.011007)
• [L3] Short-segment nerve conduction studies (SSNCSs) can detect nerve impairment in early stages and mild lesions, providing accurate lesion locations for surgery. [37] (10.4103/0366-6999.156100)
• [L4] [38] (10.3389/fsurg.2018.00048)
• [L4] Improvement in patient-reported outcomes continued and reached a plateau at 3 months, whereas measured strength and sensory recovery continued over 12 months. [40] (10.1097/prs.0b013e318282764f)
• [L3] Upper-extremity neuropathy can develop following nonupper extremity surgeries, particularly ACDF. [41] (10.1016/j.jhsg.2026.100972)
• [L4] Revision surgery is often needed to improve symptoms in recalcitrant neuropathies, typically involving wide exposure and neurolysis combined with vascularized tissue and nerve wraps to decrease recurrent scar formation. [42] (10.1016/j.jhsg.2023.03.002)
• [L1] The available evidence is not sufficient to identify the best treatment for idiopathic ulnar neuropathy at the elbow on the basis of clinical, neurophysiological and imaging characteristics. [43] (10.1002/14651858.cd006839.pub2)
• [L5] The article reviews the natural history of cubital tunnel syndrome, noting that the condition involves dynamic changes in the cubital tunnel with elbow flexion that increase pressure and stretch the ulnar nerve, and discusses conservative management options such as activity modification and splinting. [45] (10.1016/j.hcl.2007.05.002)
• [L5] Treatment is usually non-operative with satisfactory results, though surgery is indicated for nerve transection or lack of improvement after conservative treatment. [46] (10.1302/2058-5241.1.000028)
• [L3] A diagnosis of ulnar nerve compression merits a comprehensive workup by the treating surgeon and a high suspicion for concomitant median nerve compression. [48] (10.1177/1558944718813669)
• [L2] The diagnostic value of provocative tests in ulnar neuropathy at the elbow is poor and should not be recommended for clinical decision making. [49] (10.1136/jnnp.2009.180844)
• [Case_report] Physicians treating peripheral nerve disorders in individuals from endemic regions should consider leprosy when confronted with a mass in or near the ulnar nerve associated with peripheral neuropathy. [50] (10.2106/00004623-197961040-00028)
• [L5] The article provides a comprehensive review of the anatomy, pathophysiology, and causes of ulnar tunnel syndrome, noting that ganglia are the most common cause and that symptoms vary based on the anatomic location of the compression within Guyon's canal. [53] (10.1016/j.hcl.2007.06.006)
• [L3] [54] (10.1227/neu.0b013e3182846dbd)
• [Case_report] The patient's symptoms including sensory dysfunction and weakness improved over the 1-year follow-up period. [56] (10.5397/cise.2022.01102)
• [L5] A comprehensive and individualized treatment plan is crucial for optimizing patient outcomes with painful neuromas. [57] (10.5435/jaaos-d-24-00581)
• [L3] A standardized assessment protocol for ulnar neuropathy is required for future comparison trials. [58] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2009.05.010)
• [Case_report] Early diagnosis, careful preoperative imaging assessment, and complete decompression can be expected to result in favorable rehabilitation outcomes. [59] (10.1186/s12891-025-08526-x)
• [L5] Surgical decompression of the median nerve or the AIN in the forearm is rarely indicated; a prolonged nonsurgical approach is warranted in most cases. [60] (10.5435/jaaos-d-16-00010)
• [L1] Recent literature supports the AAOS guideline but demonstrates a trend towards recommending early surgery for CTS cases with or without median nerve denervation. [61] (10.2147/ijgm.s7682)
• [L4] The delayed neuropathy of the ulnar nerve appears to be associated with a complete recovery in children, as long as it is promptly treated. [62] (10.1016/j.jse.2012.11.009)
• [L4] Patients with severe intrinsic muscle atrophy and absent motor and sensory nerve conduction velocities can expect satisfactory long-term functional results after surgery. [63] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2004.01.010)
• [L5] [64] (10.1152/physrev.00028.2014)
• [L3] High-resolution ultrasound should be part of the initial evaluation of ulnar neuropathy at the elbow in order to assess the etiology of the conflict. [67] (10.1016/j.ejrad.2017.08.003)
• [L4] [68] (10.2106/00004623-199072010-00014)
• [L5] [69] (10.1136/pgmj.2006.047456)
• [L4] The diagnostic process to differentiate pronator syndrome from carpal tunnel syndrome remains a challenge due to overlapping symptoms and limited reliable information in the literature; this review provides a comprehensive clinical comparison to aid in establishing appropriate diagnosis and treatment. [83] (10.3390/diagnostics12102433)
• [L2] [84] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2008.05.022)
• [L3] [86] (10.1177/15589447241259805)
• [L3] [91] (10.1177/15589447221127334)
• [L4] Surgery was effective in treating cubital tunnel syndrome with more than 90% of patients cured or showing improvement. [94] (10.1016/j.otsr.2014.03.009)
• [L4] Cross-palm nerve grafting may be a useful adjunct to enhance sensory recovery in severe ulnar neuropathy. [100] (10.1177/1558944718822851)
• [L3] Additional studies are needed to evaluate the effects of brief electrical stimulation in compression neuropathy. [104] (10.1177/1558944721998022)
• [L2] [108] (10.1177/1753193408098480)
• [L1] This approach demonstrated significant improvements in nerve conduction, pain reduction, and enhancement of hand function. [109] (10.1016/j.jht.2024.02.006)
• [Paper] MRI is a useful diagnostic modality for confirming nerve compression, assessing space-occupying lesions, and excluding other pathologies in athletes with entrapment neuropathies of the shoulder and elbow. [111] (10.1016/j.csm.2006.03.005)
• [L4] The authors conclude that neurolysis, if performed by a surgeon skilled in microsurgery, is a safe and effective procedure for severe carpal-tunnel syndrome. [113] (10.2106/00004623-198567020-00011)
• [L4] Non-operative treatment of cubital tunnel syndrome in pediatric and adolescent patients is unlikely to resolve symptoms. [114] (10.1016/s0363-5023(11)60063-4)
• [L4] Revision procedures result in pain relief and paresthesia reduction in approximately 75% of patients, but results are inferior compared with primary procedures. [115] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2018.03.057)
• [L3] Although nonsurgical treatment is unlikely to relieve symptoms, a trial of conservative care remains appropriate for most patients, with surgery effective if nonsurgical care fails. [116] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2012.01.016)
• [L5] The majority of compression neuropathies in cyclists resolve after appropriate rest and conservative treatment; however, should symptoms persist, nerve decompression may be indicated. [117] (10.1016/j.hcl.2016.08.015)
• [L5] Therefore, early diagnosis, careful preoperative imaging assessment and full decompression can be expected to receive a good rehabilitation. [118] (10.1186/s12883-018-1229-7)
• [L5] Tearing of the UCL significantly increased elbow valgus laxity, which in turn elongated the ulnar nerve during simulated throwing motion. [120] (10.1016/j.jse.2019.02.009)
• [L4] All patients treated surgically had an excellent result regarding carpal-tunnel symptoms, whereas only three of the conservatively treated group showed improvement. [122] (10.2106/00004623-196749060-00011)
• [L4] Most cases of ulnar nerve compression improve with nonsurgical treatment and the majority get better with surgical decompression. [123] (10.1007/s12593-009-0020-9)
• [L2] Musculoskeletal ultrasound has emerged as a reasonable alternative to electrodiagnostic studies in the diagnostic work-up of carpal tunnel syndrome, cubital tunnel syndrome, and other peripheral nerve compression syndromes. [126] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2024.11.009)
• [L4] Ultrasound may be able to better identify patients with early stages of ulnar neuropathy with negative electrodiagnostic findings. [128] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2023.08.014)
• [L2] Our results support the association of duration of disease and baseline function as potentially important predictors of outcomes after simple decompression for UNE. [129] (10.1016/j.apmr.2013.10.028)
• [L3] Ultrasound (US) measurements seem to have a limited value in clinical results of patients treated for entrapment neuropathy of the ulnar nerve. [131] (10.1177/1558944719857816)
• [L4] The increased pressure in the cubital tunnel could still be important, as exposure to a lesser extraneural pressure by repetitive non-maximum elbow flexion might be more deleterious. [132] (10.3109/2000656x.2012.747962)
• [L4] To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study showing that shoulder position changes the ulnar nerve strain around the elbow in living patients with CubTS. [133] (10.1016/j.jse.2015.01.014)
• [L4] [135] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2011.11.024)
• [L1] This study confirms that scores on the DASH questionnaire reflect the clinical staging of ulnar neuropathy at the elbow. [136] (10.1016/j.jse.2009.02.010)
• [L3] Increased elbow flexion in patients with CuTS influences the intraneural blood flow of the ulnar nerve. [137] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2021.06.024)
• [L4] The study confirms that ultrasound is accurate in the diagnosis of ulnar neuropathy at the elbow (UNE). [138] (10.1093/rheumatology/kep167)
• [Paper] [139] (10.1055/s-0031-1271800)
• [L5] [143] (10.1302/2058-5241.6.200129)
• [L4] [149] (10.1016/j.jse.2018.11.054)
• [L4] Patients with combined nerve compressions follow similar trajectories in the postoperative period as those with isolated CuTS. [153] (10.1177/15589447211028921)
• [L4] [168] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2019.07.011)
• [L5] [169] (10.5435/jaaos-22-11-699)
• [L1] [170] (10.1227/01.neu.0000145854.38234.81)
• [L3] [171] (10.1016/j.jhsa.2018.02.022)
• [L4] There is a subset population of younger patients who presents with extremely short duration of symptoms that rapidly develops muscle atrophy. [172] (10.1177/1558944716643096)
• [L4] The patient returned to his original vocation and was alive with continuous disease-free status at 3.5-year follow-up. [173] (10.1155/2009/595391)
• [L4] The relief of symptoms has been predictable and the motor return was complete in patients with mild to moderate intrinsic atrophy, with no major complications. [174] (10.2106/00004623-198062060-00016)

See Also

• Cubital Tunnel Syndrome

References

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